ANALYSIS OF CRUDE PALM OIL

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ABSTRACT

This project was carried out to ascertain whether the local plam oil met the required standard.  The analytical test carried out include the free fatty acid test the acid value, iodine value moisture, content, saponfication value, peroxide value, specific gravity, colour and viscosity.

 

The specific gravity of the oil sample was determined by comparing its weight when filled with the sample and that of water, while its moisture content was analyzed by oven drying the sample for a particular period time.  Titration process was used in the analysis of the saponification value, acid, free fatty aid test, iodine value acid the peroxide value.  The procedure were the same except different indicator that was used for some test e.g starch solution was for peroxide and iodine value while acid/ free fatty acid and saponification test uses phenolphthalein as their titration process.  The viscosity was also determined by allowing the oil sample to flow down at a particular time in the upper section of a viscometer, while its colour was analysis using the titanium plate disc of the colourineter to material it.

 

Form the test analysis, the result show that the palm oil sample under consideration has a value of specific gravity-0.915g, moisture content-1.729%, saponification value-196.35mg, acid-4769%, free fatty acid-23.97%,iondine value-49.17mg, peroxide value-26mg, colour-1125tianium disc and ciscosity-165.7 centipoises.

However, the obtained result shows hat the oil sample meets the required standard but only needed a little purification process on the moisture content as compared with the international requirement.

 

CHAPTER ONE

1.0     INTORDUCTION

1.1     OBJECTIVES/SCOPE OF STUDY

 

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1     HISTORICAL BACKGROUD

2.2     COMPOSITION OF CRUDE PALM OIL

2.3     PRODUCTION OF CRUDE PALM OIL

2.3.1  LOCAL METHOD OF PRODUCTION PF PALM OIL

2.3.2  INDUSTRIAL METHOD OF PRODUCTION OFPAML OIL

2.3.3  SUMMARY OF UNIT OPERATIONS

2.3.4  THE GENERAL FLOW DIAGRAM

2.4 CHARACTERISTING/ PROPERTIESOF CRUDE PALM OIL

2.5  REDINING OF CRUDE PALM OIL  PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL REFINING

2.5.1   PHYSICAL RFFINERY PROCESS DESCRIPTION:

2.5.2 CHEMICAL REFINING PROCESS

2.6 USES OF CRUDE PALM OIL

2.7 GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF CRUDE PALM OIL

 

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 EXPERIMENTIAL ANALYSIS

EXPERIMENT 1

• DETERMINATION OF SPECIFC GRAVITY OF CRUDE PALM OIL SAMPLE
• DETERMINATION FO MOISTURE AND OTHER VOLATILE MATTER PRESENT IN THE CRUDE PALM OIL SAMPLE

 

CHAPTER FOUR

 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.1 DISCUSSION

REFERENCE

 

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

1.0     INTORDUCTION

Palm tree (Elaeis guineensis) is one plant which grows best in tropical regions.  Palm oil fruit is a drupe consisting of a hard seed surrounded by a soft semi fibrous and semi fleshy pulp. In the center of this stone or nut lies the seed.  The fleshy part of the fruit (the pulp) is at first black in colour, but as it ripens becomes bright red.  Palm fruit common name for member is palm a large fairly of chiefly tropic all trees shmbs and vines, most spies are traces characterized by a crown of compound teases called fronds terminal tall woody, unbrached  stem. Also oil palm being a nature of equatorial west Africa and preferring high rainfall and a more open kind a long river banks grow in bunches weighing up to ten kilograms and containing hundreds of fruitless like small plums.  The flesh is oily and the oil ran be recovered by very simple means so that it is probable that palm oil has been recovered and used for human food for tens of thousand of years.  The primitive extraction procedure are still in use in the village today.  A typical method consists of cutting the bunches, usually after climbing the tree and allowing them to ferment in a heap for six to seven days then production takes place.  Vegetable as it is generally called is an important product and raw material for most agro allied industries. More emphasis had been placed on vegetable oil from groundnut source in recent time, this had been attainted to its local usages most especially in domestic activities like cooking and as well as its cheap and local method of production but with the new trend in technology, vegetable oil is how being produced from both palm oil and palm kernel fruit.

 

1.1     OBJECTIVES/SCOPE OF STUDY

The objective of this study and analysis is to know the characteristics of the fats contained in the oil and other characteristic features in the oil about to help the manufacture that uses chide palm oil as a raw material to know the measure of proportion of both the saturated and unsaturated acids present the degree of instauration, its reactions with other products or fats and with them jow the oil behaves in the percale of other kind of reacting substances, these study and help to a great extent in the productions of some products

It also help one to know hoe to recover the fats present in die oil and under which condition it can be recovered and the methods of determination of the fatty acid composition.  This analysis also help in detecting the deterioration of fats; the greatest  objective is to determine the constants which helps every industries and companies that uses there oils as their raw material to know which the oil is adulterated and how to avoid and examine the mixtures contained in these oils.

These study helps to expose so many the be or environment to the nutritional value, economic value; is benefits heath wise and also the commercial gain to their country and  its economy.  known to be the most productive oil crop, a hectare of oil palm can produce five tone of crude palm oil.  This is five to ten femies more than the yield of any

PRODUCTION OF PLANT MIRROR USING LOVCAL RAW MATERIAL

COMPLETE MATERIAL COST 5000.

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ABSTRACT

This  project “production of plane mirror using local raw material” is meant to study the  possibility of producing plane mirror using sand rich in silica as its major local raw material.

Plane mirror is produced by casting one side of a sheet glass.  Presently in Nigeria, sheet glass is not used easily produce and as such, the local raw material used in the  in the production of plane mirror in this product backing paint.  The facilities for the production include spraying gun and finger brush.

In the course of production, the silver nitrate was first mixed with a reducing reagent; we formaldehyde of glucose, all in a distilled water.  After which the mirror backing paint was mixed with some amount of thinner.  The float glass was then washed with warm water and allowed to dry.  After drying, it was first coated with silver nitrate solution after the use of talcum power to rub on the back of the glass.

 

A second spraying of mirror- backing paint was done after the silver nitrate coating had dried up.  This whole operation now resulted to a plane-mirror since a plane mirror is also a coated glass.

The reflection of the mirror was taken after coating the glass, while the refractive index of the glass was taken before coating the float glass to form a mirror.

CHAPTER ONE

• INTRODUCTION

1.1     HISTORICAL BACKROUND

According to the history of glass- mirror- Eye glasses- spectacles – contact lenses online”, the history of mirror dates back to the ancient time when mankind first saw reflections in a pound or river and considered it magic. At first polished stone or later glass was used in early man-made mirrors later glass was used in combination with metals like tin, mercury, and lead to create mirror.  Today combing glass and metal is still design used in almost all modern mirrors.  Mirrors are made by coating flat glass with silver, gold or mirror paints dates from Roman times and the inventor is unknown.

According to steve Robinson (htlp:11 www. Restoration-advice org/pages/mirrors-history html), mirror made of brass are mentioned is the bible, and mirrors of bronze were is common use among the ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans.  Polished silver was also used by the Greeks and Romans to produce reflection.  Crude form of glass mirrors were first made is Venice in 1300.  By the end of 17^th century mirrors were made is Britain and  the manufacture of mirrors developed in the other European countries and in U.SA.

The first attempt to back glass with a solution of silver was made by the German chemist Justus von liebiy in 1836, various methods have been developed since then, that depend on the chemical reduction of a silver salt to metallic silver.

 

1.2     DEFINITON:      According to “the history of glass-mirror on line” mirror can be defined as a reflecting surface that forms an image of an object when light rays coming from that object fall upon the surface.  A plane mirror, which is flat, reflects light without changing the image.  Thee are two types of mirror; the convex mirror and the concave mirror. A convex mirror look like an upside-down bowl.  In a concave mirror which has bigger in the center, while a concave mirror which has a bowl shape, object looks smaller in the center the

 

1.3     AIM: The aim of this project is to determine the production of plane mirror using local raw materials due to its application in our daily activity and life.

 

1.4     SCOPE OF STUDY:    The scope of this project is to outline the sequence of production of mirror using local raw material and the operations involved.

 

1.5     USES:        The uses of plane mirror in science cannot be overemphasized. For instance, plane mirror is one of he apparatus needed for the experimental verification of the law of reflection in physics.  The inclination of plane mirrors can also help in the manufacture of periscope and kaleidoscope.  Plane mirror is also widely used in our home as security.  It is also use to see distance object in our homes.  It can be used in building houses after tempering and for domestic purposes.

 

1.6     PROPERTIES:   Plane mirror undergoes regular refection and produce a virtual image on incident beam of light or ray of light on the surface, but apart form that plane mirror has physical and chemical properties.  This physical properties are viscosity, strength, index of refraction, dispersion light transmission, (both total and as a function of wavelength, corrosion resistance and electrical properties.  The chemical properties are reaction involves diffusion of corns out of glass into the attacking materials and counter diffusion of ions form attacking material into the glass.  Reactions in which the

 

THE EFFECT OF LIQUID FLOERATE AND GAS FLOWRATE ON A  REPAIR OF EQUIPMENT

COMPLETE MATERIAL COST 5000.

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ABSTRACT

The purpose of the project is to study the effect of liquid flow rate and gas flow rate on the pressure drop in a packed absorption tower and also to repair and restore the packed absorption tower to good working condition.

 

Trouble shooting revealed that the exit drain value was broken due to carelessness on the part of former user of the equipment.  We had to carry out glassblowing operations using borosilicate glass to construct another value.  Once this was done pressure build up within the tower was restored for absorption operation to take place.

A plot of log DO/H against log a superficial gas velocity gave 2.0774 2.3037 and 1.4940 respectively for slopes at varied superficial liquid velocity.

 

We concluded that increase in gas flow rate lead to increase in pressure drop since the graph obtained is linear.  There was a drop in slope from lower liquid rate to higher as operation neared flooding condition.  This means that industrially more cost is alluded to pumping operation to be successful.

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

• Objectives of the project

 

CHAPTER TWO

2.0     Literature review

• Pressure drop

2.3     Loading and flooding

• Description of tower
• packing characteristic
  • Water pump operation
• Design procedure of tower
  • Selection of solvent

 

CHAPTER THREE

• Experiment procedure

3.1     Glass  blowing process and procedure

3.1.1  General physical properties of glass

3.1.2  General chemical properties of glass

• Borosilicate glass properties
• Construction of drain value

 

CHAPRER FOUR

Data analysis

Discussion

CHAPETR FIVE

Conclusion

Recommendation

References

Appendix 1:         summary of calculation

Graph  11:  plot of log DP/H vs log a 46

Appendix 111:     cost of repairing equipment 49

Appendix 111:     scale drawing of packing absorption tower.

 

CHAPTER ONE

1.0     INTRODUCTION

The removal of one or more selected components from a mixture of gases by absorption into a suitable liquid is the second major operation of chemical engineering that is based on inter phase mass transfer controlled large by rates of diffusion

Gas absorption defined  by Perry is a unit operation in which a soluble components of a gas mixture are dissolved in a liquid.  The inverse operation is called stripping or description.

In gas absorption a soluble rapour is absorbed  from its mixture with an inert gas by means of a liquid in which the solute gas is more or less soluble.  The washing of ammonia for a mixture of ammonia and air by means of liquid water is a typical example.  The solute is subsequently recovered from the liquid by distillation and the absorbing liquid can be either discarded or reused.  An acetone air mixture passed through a  gas stream can recover acetone by its dissolving in the gas and allow the air to pass out.  In each of the example given only physical process take place with no chemical affect appreciable. However when oxides of nitrogen are absorbed dioxide is absorbed in a solution of sodium hydroxide, a chemical reaction occurs, the nature of which influences the actual rate of absorption

In considering the design of equipment to achieve gas absorption, the main requirement is that gas be brought into intimate contact with the liquid and the effectiveness of the equipment will largely be determined by the success with which it promotes contact between the two phases.

 

In absorption, the feed is a gas and is introduced at the button of the column, and the solvent is fed to the top 1 as a liquid  the absorbed gas and solvent leave at the bottom and the unabsorbed components leave as gas from the top.

A common apparatus used gas absorption and certain other operations is the packed tower.  The  device consists of a cylindrical column or tower  equipped  with a gas inlet and distributing space at  the bottom! A liquid inlet and distributing at the top gas and liquid out lets at the top bottom, respectively! And a supported mass of inter solid shapes, called tower packing.  The packing support is typically a screen, corrugated to give it strength with a large open area so that flooding does not occur at the support.  The inlet liquid, which may be pure solvent or a dilate solution if solute in the solvent and which is called the weal liquid is distributed over the top of he packing by the distributor and in ideal operation, uniformly wets the surface of the packing.  The solute-rich gas enters the distributing space below the packing and flows upward through the interstices in the packing countercurrent to the flow of the liquid.  The packing provides a large area of contact between the liquid and gas and encourages intimate contact between the phases.  The solute in the rich gas is absorbed by the fresh liquid entering the tower and dilute, or lean gas leaves the top the liquid is enriched in solute as it floes down the tower and concentrated liquid called strong liquor, leaves bottom of the tower through the liquid outlet.

In order to obtain a good rate of transfer per unit volume of the tower, a packing is selected which will promote a high interfacial area between the two phases and a high degree of the rebalance in the fluid usually increased  area and turbulence are achieved at the expense of increased capital cost and/or pressure drop and a balance must be made between these factors when arriving at an economic design.

 

Since the purpose of this project is to study the effect of variations in the liquid and gas flow rates on the pressure drop in a countercurrent packed absorption tower suing water and air, we do know that total pressure drop occurrence in the unit can have significant effect on compressor running costs.  There is appreciable loss of energy due to function and this shows itself as a fall in pressure between the gas inlet and outlet.  Increase in the gas flow rate will obviously increase the frictional loses.

 

However, gas and liquid are both competing for the free cross-sectional area available for gas flow will also increase the functional losses.  Increase in the gas or liquid flow rate will therefore increase the pressure drop.

The relevance of air/ water testing to the unit process of absorption is seen from two perspectives; one is using fundamental approaches to assess the importance of all relevant forces and whether they are adequately modeled by air/water tests.

Two by carrying out tests with a ranted of different fluids (or systems) with different physical properties if similar results are found or fundamentally sound method  that pull together the air/ water results and those for other systems cam be identified, then air/water can be used as acceptable model system.  If the air/water result and non-air/water results differ and cannot be pulled together with a fundamentally sound approach, then the value of air/ water studies for the process is less and conclusion drawn should be questioned if  applied to actual absorption systems.

 

1.2     SCOPE/OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

The project  deal first and fore most with the repairs and restoration of the packed absorption tower to a good working condition and the performance of a laboratory experiment using it.

The experiment want to measure the relationship between the liquid flow rate and gas flow rate with pressure in the

THE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A 40 WATT HI-FI AMPLIFIER

COMPLETE MATERIAL COST 5000.

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ATM CARD:  YOU CAN ALSO MAKE PAYMENT USING YOUR ATM CARD OR ONLINE TRANSFER. PLEASE CONTACT YOUR BANKER SECURITY GUIDE ON HOW TO TRANSFER MONEY TO OTHER BANKS USING YOUR ATM CARD. ATM CARD OR ONLINE BANK TRANSFER IS FASTER FOR QUICK DELIVERY TO YOUR EMAIL . OUR MARKETER WILL RESPOND TO YOU ANY TIME OF THE DAY. WE SUPPORT CBN CASHLESS SOCIETY. 

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CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

 

CHAPTER TWO

Components Explanation

Capacitor

Value of a capacitor

Tolerance

Working voltage

Leakage current

Component and Operation of a Capacitor

Resistor

Printed Circuit Board

Loudspeaker

Cabinet Screen

Heat Sink

Variable Resistor

Integrated Circuit

Diode

 

CHAPTER THREE

Diagrams of project

Operation manual

 

CHAPTER FOUR

Construction

Economic of the project

Reliability

Maintainability

Testing

 

CHAPTER FIVE

Conclusion

Bibliography

 

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

 

INTRODUCTION

High power amplifier are usually quite costly and usually beyond the easy reach of most audio enthusiastic (and Hi-Fi  buffs) who then have to remain satisfied with those small 6 watt amplifiers. Well, with this introduction to us and to electronics, things should change. Well this low cost Hi-Fi amplifier that delivers ear chatting and thundering output of an unbelievable forty watts. The unique features of this circuit are.

• Low cost – The basic criteria
• Compact size
• Very low transient noise on “power on” and low THO
• Effective Bass and treble controls
• Automatic thermal shut down system it switches off the amplifier in case of overheating
• Load damp protection in built.

The circuit uses a high power amplifier chip viz the LA 4440. the circuit is quite self explanatory. The input is coupled by a small value capacitor. The output is taken through a block terminal and fed to

CONSTRUCTION OF PROPELLER AGITATOR

COMPLETE MATERIAL COST 5000.

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Account Name: Chi E-Concept Int’l
 Account Number:  0117780667. 
Swift Code: GTBINGLA 
Dollar conversion rate for Naira is 175 per dollar. 

ATM CARD:  YOU CAN ALSO MAKE PAYMENT USING YOUR ATM CARD OR ONLINE TRANSFER. PLEASE CONTACT YOUR BANKER SECURITY GUIDE ON HOW TO TRANSFER MONEY TO OTHER BANKS USING YOUR ATM CARD. ATM CARD OR ONLINE BANK TRANSFER IS FASTER FOR QUICK DELIVERY TO YOUR EMAIL . OUR MARKETER WILL RESPOND TO YOU ANY TIME OF THE DAY. WE SUPPORT CBN CASHLESS SOCIETY. 

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ABSTRACT

 

Propeller agitator is a specialized of various types of substances.  It consists of three basic components which are the shaft, blade and the vessel.

In the construction, mild steel was chosen due to it’s inherent properties.  After the procurement, the following constructional operations were carried out which included marking out, center punching folding, welding, filling operation, assembling, and painting to beautify the equipment and for other purposes.

The shapes and forms are formulated to obtain the following dimensions of the agitator.  These are length of handle = 320mm, diameter of gear teeth = 100mm, thickness of shaft = 20mm, thickness of gear = 12mm, size of blade = 50mm x 100mm, blade diameter = 63mm, inside diameter of pump = 12mm, outside diameter of pump = 20mm, shat height = 470mm, vessel diameter = 340mm and height = 560mm

The agitating mixer has high efficiency of comparable to those produced industrially.  The estimated rate of rotation is 1720 rpm.

The cost of construction of the agitator is however minimized due to the preferred choice of the raw material and method of fabrication.

 

CHAPTER ONE

1.0     Introduction

• The objective of the project

 

CHAPTER TWO

• The theory and concept of agitation
• Type of mixers
• The impeller mixers for liquids

2.31   Paddles

2.32   Turbines

2.33   Propellers

• The particle mixer for free flowing solids
• Mixers for heavy paste or cohesive solids
• Agitator effectiveness & agitation index
• Degree of agitation
• Power consumption in agitators
• Agitation rate
• Materials for the construction of propeller agitator
• Equipments for the fabrication of propeller agitator

 

CHAPTER THREE

• Construction and fabrication procedure
• Steps of fabrication process

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0     Cost analysis

• Material cost
• Labour cost

 

CHAPTER FIVE

• Discussion
• Recommendation
• Conclusion

 

CHAPTER SIX

          Nomenclature

References

 

CHAPTER ONE

 

1.0     INTRODUCTION

Propeller agitator mixing is one of the most common operations carried out in chemical, processing and allied industries.  The terms “mixing” is applied to the processes used to reduce the degree of non uniformity or gradual of a property in a system such as concentration, viscosity, temperature and so on.

Mixing is achieved by moving material from one region to  another.  It may be of interests simply as a means of achieving a desired degree of homogeneity or it may be used two proote heat undergoing a chemical reaction.

At the outset I t is useful to consider some common examples of problems encountered in industrial mixing operations, since this will nto only reveal the ubiquitous nature of the process but will also provide an appreciation of some of the associated.  Difficulties.  Several attempts have been made to classify mixing problems, and for example “REAVELL” used as a criterion for mixing of powders, the flowability of the final products, HARNEY et al based their classification on the phases present, that is liquid – liquid, solid – liquid and so on.  This is probably the most useful description of mixing as it allows the adoption of a unified approach to the problems encountered in a range of industries.

The term agitation is applied to a variety of operations differing in the degree of homogeneity of the mixed material.  In chemical engineering, it is conventional to treat agitation and multi purpose operations for which the principles of equipment design and operation can be stated generally, such operations in agitation like crystallization, Ion exchange and colliding are advanced of this study and construction.

In most homes, industries and chemical operations, two or more substances are required to be mixed for users demand, in mixing as a unit operation, the substance is fed into the vessel or mixing tank containing the agitator in either one form, liquid, solid or gas.  The product obtained should either be homogenous or heterogeneous depending on demand or desired product.

The selection of a particular agitator for a particular purpose requirement, the flow properties of the process fluid, equipment cost and the construction material required must be considered.  Ideally, the equipment chosen should be that which has the lowest cost but meets all process requirement.  In a given problem, the agitator given must handle the material when it is in it’s worst condition and may not be so effective as other design during other parts of mixing cycle.  As with other equipments, the choice of an agitator for heavy material is always a compromise and arbitrary.

Liquids are agitated for a number of purpose, depending on the objective of the processing step, soe of the purpose includes

1. Promoting heat transfer between the liquid and a coil or jacket
2. Blending immiscible liquids, for example, methyl alcohol and water.
3. Dispensing a second liquid, immiscible wt h the first to form an emulsion or suspension of fine drops
4. Suspending solid particles
5. Dispersing a gas through the liquid in the form of small bubbles.

A typical application of propeller agitator is in mixing of high viscosity liquids or solid in solids.  Most factories produce and products using blended liquids like in the confectionery industries, liquids food drinks like canned juices as well as canned and bottled drinks.

Many a times, one agitator serves several purposes at the same time, as in the catalytic hydrogenation of a liquid, in a hydrogenation vessel, the hydrogen gas is dispersed through the liquid in which solid particles of catalyst are suspended, with the heat of reaction simultaneously removed by a cooling coil or jacket.

 

1.1     OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

The objective of the project is to construct a portable propeller agitator with high efficiency and durability, which will be used for good mixing operation in smalls scale industries or in the laboratories and other applications such as domestic and pharmaceutical industries.

The preferred choice of raw material of the construction is mild steel because of it’s excellent properties which included high resistance to corrosion, machineability, ductility, malleability, it resistance to react with the material or reactant when agitating as any reaction between the vessel and the material to be mixed will affect the product.  Moreover, it is cheap and available.

The dimensions of the propeller agitator are length of handle = 320mm, diameter of gear teeth = 100mm, thickness of shaft = 20mm, thickness of gear = 12mm, size of blade = 50mm x 100mm, blade diameter = 63mm, inside diameter of pump = 12mm outside diameter of pump = 20mm, shaft height = 470mm, vessel diameter = 340mm and vessel height = 560mm.