PROCESS DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRODUCTION OF VEGETABLE OIL FROM LOCAL RAW MATERIAL

COMPLETE PROJECT  MATERIAL COST 5000 NAIRA

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ABSTRACT

The project was melined on the process description of producing vegetable oil using locally made raw materials. To accomplish the aim of he project, the necessary steps which include extraction of the oil from the seed, pre-treatment like de-gumming, bleaching and deodorizing was also carried out. In the extraction stage, two different extraction process which include expeller pressing and solvent extraction was carried out on two different seeds which were palm kerned and soya bean. The result of the extraction showed that the palm kerned seed contains more oil than the soay bean seed. For expelle extraction, roller press was used and for solvent extraction two different solvents were used which include acetone and hexane.

The characteristics of the two different solvent were compared as a result of this project.

The de-gumming treatment on the oil was hinged oil was hinged at removing the gum which could be presents in the oil. In de-gumming operation the following chemical were used citric acid, sodium chloride and sodium silicate, other chemicals which could be used apart from those choosen for this project are  sulphuric acid, hydochilonic acid, boric acid, salicyle acid, tartaric acid, inorganic phosphate and sequestering agents. For edible purpose, the most widely used e-gumming operation are hydration and hosphoric acid treatment and that was why they were used in this project.

After the de-gumming operations, the alkali refining operation was carried out. the aim of this step ws to remove the free fatty acids which ave developed in the oil. The refining operation was also referred to as neutralization because of its objective.  The operation involve the neutralization with caustic soda to form soap and free glycerol which was filtered off from the oil.

The bleaching operation was carried out after the alkali refining to remove the colour pigment in the oil. The bleaching treatment available that could be use for oil bleaching are chemical treatment, heat treatment and bleaching by adsorption. The most important bleaching treatment used for edible oil is adsorption bleaching where filter earth like natural activated coal were used to adsorb the colour of the oil.

The results of these operations carried out on palm kernel and soya bean showed that oil from palm kernel could be of high quantity but they were of low quality compare to soya bean oil which was of very low quantity when extracted but with high quality.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction                                                                 1

CHAPTER TWO

Literature review                                                         5

CHAPTER THREE

Experimental procedure                                            80

CHAPTER FOUR

Discussion & Results                                                 82

• Results
• Discussion

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Oil constitutes a well-defined class of natural organic substances which are essential constituents of all forms of plant and animal life. They are soluble in either and other organic solvents but not in water. Commercial oils are however from a relatively few members of the plant and animal kingdom, in which they appear in quantity and in an easily available form(s). They are primarily a product of agriculture, although these is also a considerably production from uncultivated tropical plants and from mature animals. Oil can be grouped into edible and non-edible depending on the amount of unspecified matters and impurities. Owing to the fact that the use of oils from crop seed as a major raw materials for increase in recent years, there has been the need for extended and numerous research works based on the extraction of these oils from its seeds as economically efficiently as possible.

This research project is concerned with the process development and production of vegetable oil from local raw materials. In that case, two raw materials are considered and they are soya bean seed and palm kernel.

The oil content of soya beans varies usually from about 13 to 26 percent or more on a moisture free basis while the protein may range from 30 to 50 percent. The breeding of varieties with a high oil content has since raised the average oil content to more than 20 percent.

The whole seed consists of the kernel and the seed coat, with the oil concentrating mostly on the kernel. The seed coats which amount to about 5 to 10 percent of the weight of the seeds contain less than 1 percent of oil and very little protein.

The only possible way of obtaining large quantity of oils from oil bearing vegetable or plant materials is by extraction and this could best be achieve using leaching process. This process can be accomplished by a variety of ways but, as might be expected, its efficiency depends on the extent of obtaining inhibited contact between the liquid solvent and the solid containing the solute. Leaching reduces the oil in the residue to about 0.5 – 1.5 percent as compared with about 54 – 6 percent by mechanical expression. The types of solvent available for leaching include n – hexane, petroleum ether, benezene, n – Neptane, acetone, D, ethyl ether etc which are high petroleum fractions (so called extraction naphtha’s).

Palm kernel oil, a white solid vegetables, high saturated acid oil from kernels has an oil content of dried kernels of about 44 – 53%. Hexane extracted palm kernel oil is light yellow in colour with a very strong characteristic smell and taste (fatty acid with molecular weight of 219.10). As a fatty acid, palm kernel oil is used in making soap and as a vegetable oil, it is used in making soap and as a vegetable oil, it is used in food products such as margarine and confectionery butter by hydrogenation. As a viscous liquid, it is used as a lubricant. It is also used as a medical such as cough syrap and in caring emulsion.

Palm kernel oil can be extracted by two methods:- solid – liquid extraction often called leaching and by mechanical pressing. In this work the former was considered using n – hexane as the liquid and no attempt was made at any other conventional method because much oil was sought to extract in the sample as possible, rather than one or two

NEW FORMULAE FOR ESTIMATING FIXED INVESTMENT  CAPITAL COSTS

COMPLETE PROJECT  MATERIAL COST 5000 NAIRA

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.

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ABSTRACT

Fixed capital investment cost is very important for the start up of any chemical plant, because it determine the evaluation of any project in a company.

Before commencement of any chemical plant, there are certain amount needed for the operation such amount is called the working capital. Which is the capital needed for the plant to operate to the point when income is earned. It includes the cost of raw materials and intermediates in the process start up cost, finished methods inventories, and funds to cover outstanding accounts from customers.

Fixed capital is of two types namely; the manufacturing fixed capital investment and non – manufacturing fixed investment. The methods use for estimating or calculating fixed capital investment cost in chemical plant or process industries includes the followings;

• land factors
• detailed –items estimate
• percentage of delivered – equipment cost
• unit – cost estimate
• power factor applied to plant capacity ratio
• investment cost per unit of capacity
• turnover ratios

For any chemical plant operation, fixed capital investment cost is necessary, to determine the evaluation of any project.

CHAPTER ONE

• Introduction 1

1.1    Manufacturing fixed capital investment       2

1.2    Non-Manufacturing fixed capital investment 3

1.3    Method use for calculating fixed

capital investment                                            4

1.4    Types of compartmentalization                     6

CHAPTER TWO

• Literature review 7
• Estimating cash flow 9
• Project evaluation 11
• Project design 11
• Payback period 12
• Public cost indices 13
• Industrial approach 14
• Accounting rate of return (arrangement) 14
• Discounted cash flow

(net present value) method                                       15

• Acceptance criterion 17
• Time value of money 17
• Power factor applied to plant capacity ratio 18
• Investment cost per unit of capacity 19
• Turnover ratios 19
• New method for estimating fixed cost 19

CHAPTER THREE

3.0    Estimating fixed cost investment                            21

3.1    Method for estimating fixed cost investment 21

3.2    Detailed – item estimate                                 22

3.3    Unit-cot estimate                                              22

3.4    Percentage of delivered equipment cost       23

3.5    Lang factors for approximation of

capital investment                                           24

3.6    Factors considered in estimating cost                    24

3.7    Prevailing cost                                                  25

3.8    Inflation                                                              26

3.9    Foreign exchange rates                                   28

CHAPTER FOUR

• Discussion 32
• Conclusion 34
• Recommendation 36
• References 38

CHAPTER ONE

• INTRODUCTION

Fixed capital investment cost is very important for the start up of any chemical plant. It determines the evaluation of any project in a company, it is the cost paid to the contractor, such as design and other engineering and construction supervision. All items of equipment and their installation, all piping, instrumentation and control systems, building and structures, and auxiliary facilities such as utilities, land and civil engineering work.         

The cost is not recovered at the end of the project life, other than the scrap value.

Before any chemical plant can operate successfully, there are certain amount needed for the operation such amount is called the working capital, it is the capital needed for the plant to operate to the point when income is earned. It includes the cost of raw materials and intermediates in the process start up cost, finished product inventories, and funds to cover outstanding accounts from customers most of the working capital is recovered at the end of project.

Fixed capital is subdivided into two parts, that is the manufacturing fixed capital investment and non-manufacturing fixed capital investment.

1.1 MANUFACTURING FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT

This is the capital necessary for the installed process equipment with all auxiliaries that are needed for complete process operation. Expenses for piping, I instruments, installation, foundations and site preparation are typical examples of cost included in the manufacturing fixed capital investment.

• NON-MANUFACTURING FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT

Non-manufacturing fixed capital investment is the capital required for all plant components that are not directly related to the process operation is designated as the non-manufacturing fixed capital investment. These plant components includes the land processing, buildings, I administrative and other offices, warehouses, laboratories, transportation, stipping and receiving facilities, shops and other permanent parts of the plant. The construction overhead cost consists of field, office and supervision expenses, miscellaneous construction costs, contractors fees and contingencies.

In the estimate of any project, accuracy is been considered. The accuracy of an estimate depend on the amount of design detail available, the cost data and the time spent on preparing the estimate.

Cost escalation (inflation) do affect the estimate of the cost of any project if proper care are not taking, sometimes the cost of materials and labour are subjected to inflation with this, all cost calculation use historical data method and also been for costs of future costs for re update of the historical cost data, the published cost indices method is used, it relate present costs to past costs and are base on data for labour, material and energy cost published in government statistical digests.

Cost in year A = Cost in year B X cost index year A

Cost index in year B

1.3  METHOD USE IN CALCULATING FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT 

There are some methods that are use for the calculation of fixed capital investment cost in chemical plant or industrial. It includes the following:

1. land factors
2. detailed items estimate

• percentage of delivered – equipment cost

1. unit cost estimate
2. power factor applied to plant capacity ratio
3. investment cost per unit of capacity

• turnover ratios

The fixed capital investment cost can also be calculated by compartmentalization. It has to do with the consideration of the fixed capital investment  requirement by parts. With this , each identified pars is treated as a separate unit to obtain the total investment cost.

1.4  THERE ARE SO MANY TYPES OF COMPARTMENT AGITATION, THIS ARE              

1) the modular estimate

PRODUCTION OF BLACK AND BROWN POLISH

COMPLETE PROJECT  MATERIAL COST 5000 NAIRA

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ABSTRACT.

This project is aimed at producing black and brown polish of good quality.  For clearity, polish is a substance rubbed on the surface of materials to make them smooth and shiny. Polish has being of immense importance in protecting leather surfaces and enhancing their beauty. To produce a standard polish, hard waxes such as carnduba wax, candelhla wax and palm wax; semi-hard waxes which include, paraffin wax and ozokerite; solvents like tupentine and naphtha; dyes and dryers are essential. In this research project, paraffin wax, turpentine; paraffin oil,. Cobalt and lead dryers, vanish, black and brown pigments were used to obtain the desired result. The apparatus was set up as can be seen in fig1. Using the measured quantities of the ingredients, the production started with heating to about 90^oc to melt the wax and cooling to about 60⁰c. This was preceded by the addition of the solvent, the colorant, dryer and vanish. As this was being done, there was continuous agitation. After obtaining a homogenous mixture, the product was filled into 50ml cans and allowed to cool. The best formulation was obtained from 45.2%, 24%, 21%, 2%, 2%, 2% of turpentine, paraffin wax,  paraffin oil, drier, vanish and colorant respectively. The major problem encountered were that of coverage and gloss or surface shine produced by the trial formulations. They were blamed on the particle size of the pigments and the absence of some other ingredients like hard waxes to blend the paraffin wax; and naphtha which could not be found dispite all effort made. Happily, these were reasonably improved by using finer pigments particles and vanish respectively.

From tests and evaluations, the research project was a success with a good produce formulation; importantly, a production. And packaging cost (for the formulation) on fourty one naira, thirty three kobo (N41.30) per 50ml polish content was carried out with the sum of six thousand eight hundred and forty naira (N6,840.00)

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

The emergence of polish technology in engineering is apparent offshoot of complexities resulting from the induction of substances that produce desired gloss and provides a protective coating for the surface of the materials, changing it to a dry adherent film. Therefore, polish is a substances usually wax based, which when applied to a sequence was based, which applied to sequence protects, makes it smooth and shiny.

It has been discovered that shoe polish industries in Nigeria are at minimum even though the polish industry is economically very important due to its widespread usage. Shoe polish industry  as a surface coaling provider in a very important venture.  The manufacture of surface coaling materials of which shoes polish is a part, has been estimated with swales of more than 10,000 million yearly.  This in essence means that its usage is wide spread and in teams of employment, gives a lot of  opportunities.  The economic consequences as highlighted above have4 in turn spu7rred many into a continuous struggle for a good quality product.

Therefore, in a bid to reduce the degree of unemployment by establishing small scale industries, this research project is emback upon.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

The aim and objective of this project among other things include;

1                   To produce shoe polish which will suit the weather of this country.

2                   Produce polish of high quality at minimum cost5

3                   To conserve foreign exchange and help solve the problem of balance of payment resulting from, the importation of polishes  to offset the unnecessary.

4                   To help complement the efforts of existing factories toward meeting the rising demand of product.

5                   To create employment opportunities by establishing polish industry.

6                   To reduce the depending on government for emplyment by having individual investment and becoming self reliant

THE SIGNIFICANCE

Considering the fact that there are few or practically no functional polish industry in the country, and the imported polish most atimes do not meet up with the local weather conditions, this research project will help to find solution to these problems.  And at the same time offer local alternatives to these imported products.  It will equally be an avenue for finding means of increasing our domestic national product. Importantly, exploiting the benefit offered by this research work will help in improving the qualities of polishes produced.  This will help in making the polish industry a viable venture, whose product could be exported thereby serving as a foreign exchange earner for the country.

SCOPE OF THE PROJECT