PRODUCTION OF ETHANOL FROM CASSAVA
(MANIHOT ESCULEUTA)

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ABSTRACT
A literature review of ethanol production from local materials especially from cassava is presented.
The study was carried out to investigate the production of a good quality ethanol from cassava using microorganisms. The micro- organisms used were malt and yeast (saccharomyces cerevisae). The other intermediate production was starch and sugar which ethanol was obtained in a satisfactory yield and purity (about 98%). It is therefore not 100% ethanol.

TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Historical development 3
1.2 Aim and objective 5
1.3 Statements of problems 5
1.4 Hypothesis 6
1.5 Justifications 6
1.6 Limitations 7
CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review 8
2.0 Method of ethanol production 8
2.1 Gelatimazation and saccharification 13
2.2 Enzymatic hydrolysis method 14
2.3 Acid hydrolysis method 16
2.4 Alcoholic fermentation 17
2.5 By product of alcoholic fermentation 18
2.6 Separation of by product 19
2.7 Biochemistry and mechanism of sugar fermentation 20
2.8 Rectification and production of absolute alcohol. 25
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials and methods 27
3.1 Extraction of starch from cassava 29
3.2 Preparation of malt powder 30
3.3 Mashing 31
3.4 Test for reducing sugar 33
3.5 Quantitative test for sugar using benedict solution 33
3.6 Preparation of yeast inoculums 34
3.7 Preparation of fermentation medium 35
3.8 Distillation of ethanol from fermented worth. 36
CHAPTER FOUR
Result and Discussion 38
CHAPTER FIVE
Conclusion and recommendation 45
References 47
CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Ethanol is produced commercially by chemical synthesis and fermentation. Practically all industrials ethanol is manufactured synthetically from petroleum and natural gas while all beverage alcohol is produced by fermentation of cereal grains molasses, potatoes and other materials with high starch and sugar contents.
Potentials sources of production of alcohol in Nigeria include millet, yam, sorghum, corn, cocoyam and cassava. Cassava tuber (manihot esculenta) is the most potential candidate by virtue of the fact that this crop can be grown with low level of management and also varieties for industrials production and presence of high yielding cultivars.
Cassava (manihot esculenta) also called manioc of the spurge family (Euphorbiaceous) is native from South Africa but is now cultivated in most tropical and subtropical regions. It is a shrubby prennial about 9ft high and has terminal starchy tuberous root. The root contain prussic acid and some are quite poisonous but heat expels the volatile acid and render the materials harmless.
The hydrolysis of cassava and utilization of an efficient low cost saccharifying agent are factors of paramount importance in the production of food or alcohol from cassava starch since this polysaccharide must be broken down into fermentation sugar which can be utilized by the micro- organisms.
The amylolytic enzymes used in the biological saccharification can be obtained from several sources. These include COM, and barley malt and the surface and submerged fungal and bacteria culture processes.
The breakdown of geletimized starch occur via the hydrolysis of the – 1.4 linkages which from the glucose molecules and also via the hydrolysis of – 1,6 amylopectin component of starch. Malt contain the three most important enzymes for the starch breakdown – amylase. B – amylase and amyloglicosidase.
Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) is produced by the anaerobic fermentation of the saccharified starch (reducing sugar) by yeast via the embden – meyerhoff – parnas (EMP) pathway of anaerobic fermentation. Saccharomyces cerevisae was chosen for such characteristics as their ability to ferment rapidly and to tolerate higher ethanol concentration and to flocculate easily.
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH +2CO2
(aq) (aq) (g)
Ethyl alcohol is colorless, volatile liguid, which is flammable and toxic and has a punger taste. It boils 78.4oc and melts at –112. 3oc, has a specific gravity of 0.7851 at 20oc and insoluble in water and most organic liquid. The general formula of ethanol is CNH2NHOH.

1.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF ETHANOL
The name “alcohol” is a generic name derived from two Arabic words, al and koli which were used to described a finely ground powder used by oriental women to darken their eye brow. The name was generally restricted to alcohol spirits of wine rectified to the highest “degree”.
Ethyl alcohol is of course extremely well known as a constituent of alcohols beverage distilled; beer, wine. The world alcohol unqualified is often used to refer to ethyl alcohol.
As a beverage, it has been produced and utilized unknowingly as far back as 4000 year ago by the pharoalis in Egypt.
An indication of the antiquity of the knowledge of the effect of ethyl alcohol has been traced to Noah, who built for himself a vineyard and grew which he fermented into a sort of alcohols beverage on which he become drunk with unfortunate result to his respectability. Other (1967).
Williams and Lansford described alcoholic fermentation as the process by which certain micro- organism, particularly strains of yeast convert sugar to a mixture of ethanol (ethyl alcohols) and carbon dioxide.
The term fermentation (Latin fermentation to boil) was used to describe the appearance of boiling due to evolution of gas caused by microbiological reactions. The micro-organism were originally named organized ferments to distinguish them from unorganized ferments that had been extracted from plants and animals.
The term enzyme (Greek en, in, zypee. Yeast) came into general use after sometime and soon displaced the term ferment. Fermentation has come to mean enzymatic action other than those involving oxygen. The alcoholic fermentation of sugars was almost certainly discovered by accident, probably as a result of some cereal infusion becoming infested with yeasts and other micro – organisms. The discover is thought to have taken place well over ten thousand year ago among the ancient civilization inhabiting in nice valley.
The most ambitions step so far taken is in Brazil, which is the highest probably and most

EXTRACTION OF TANNIN FROM INDIGENOUS WOOD SPECIES

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ABSTRACT

A general analysis of bark and leave of some indigenous wood species was carried out with the aim of establishing whether their percentage tannin content is high enough to be of commercial value. The results obtained from the four species examined, show the percentage tannin to be 12.7%, 7.1%, 5.3% and 8.4% for the bark of four species pterocarpus osun, pterocoupus soyaixii, Burkea Africans and khaya senegacensis respectively. Also from the leaves, the percentages obtained where 3.2, 2.8, 4.4 for pterocarpus osun, pterocarpus soyauxii and khaya senegacensis respectively. These results are comparable with the empirical data and so are enough to be of commercial value.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Statement of problem 3
1.2 Aims 4
1.3 Objectives 4
1.4 Limitation and delimitation 4
1.5 Hypothesis 5
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature review 6
2.1 Extraction of natural products 13
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials and preparation 17
3.1 Raw materials 17
3.2 Apparatus 17
3.3 Preparation 18
3.4 Extraction/method 18
3.5 Flow process for extraction using hot water 19
3.6 Method 20
3.7 Quantitative analysis 21
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Result 22
4.1 Percentage tannin 23
4.2 Discussion 23
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Conclusion And Recommendation 24
5.1 Conclusion 24
5.2 Recommendation 25
References 26

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The tissue of wood, bark and leaves of trees contain a great variety of chemical substances of considerably scientific interest and some of the practical values. Tannin is a generic name for widely occurring group of substances of vegetable origin.
Tannins from the bark, wood and leaves of certain species of plants is one of the most important commercial extractives which also form the basis of some important industries. The main local source of obtaining industrial vegetable tannin in Acacia nilotica pods, obtained principally around Kano and Maiduguir. Due to ever increasing demand for this materials by the producers of particle boards and leathers, there has grown a scarcity which normally manifest itself in the cost of materials.
Even in the southern parts of Nigeria where new leather industries are developing, the problem of obtaining transporting and storing these pods cannot for too long be over – looked there is therefore the need for a search into other alternatives in order to avoid a heavy drain on foreign exchange because of the importation of synthan (synthetic phenolic polymers).
Again the mangrove (Rhizophora species) found largely in most tropical coast lines contain reasonable amount of tannin. But when used in the heavy tanning industries. They a re known to produce an extract which has the major set back because of its hard red colour, which is prone to further darkening on exposure to sunlight during drying Fasina (1974) suggested that after full tannage is achieved, that the leather or particle board is bleached and then retanned using a light coloured fast penetrating vegetable tannin extract. But one cannot over look here, the cost factor, since an industry is usually profit motivated.
This project is therefore an investigation carried out the determine other sources of vegetable tannin of commercial importance and which can sustain the available tanners industries in the country that is the species (bark and leaves) investigated were Pterocarpus Osun Pterocarpus Soyaureii. Burkea africana and Khaya senegalensis.
1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
For too long, there has been the importation of synthan (synthetic phenolic polymers) which is a heavy drain on foreign exchange. The importation adds much to the cost factors of the materials which tannin can be used for, thereby decreasing the profits of the products. This factor lowers the growth of some tanning industries, since industries are usually profit oriented.
Again, mangroves Rhizophora species contain a reasonable amount of tannin which has a major set back, even cacia nilotica pod is a good source of tannin but it is very for away. That is Kano and Maidguri.
Due to ever increasing demand for this material (tannin) by the producers of particle board and leather there has grown a scarcity which normally manifest itself in the cost of this

PRODUCTION OF STARCH-BASED ADHESIVE FROM CASSAVA

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ABSTRACT
Starch was extracted from cassava tubers using the wet extraction method. Various formulations were developed and hence optimum quality was obtained. The formulations were produced by gelatinization process and were based on varying the quality of the additives used.
The test carried out on the formulations include:- determination of the PH. The PH of the formulated adhesive is 6.8 while is fairly comparable. Solid/moisture content of the formulations are 19.4% and 82.2% respectively and that of standard is 15-30% and 65-85% respectively.
The tack time of the formulated adhesive was 16 minutes which is also comparable to the standard which is 15 minutes. Shelf life of the formulated adhesives has exceeded more than two months and it is still suitable showing that it could be equal to the shelf life of market.
Finally the wettablility of the formulations were comparable with the wettability of market adhesives.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE
Introduction 1
1.1 Scope 3
1.2 Statement of problem 4
1.3 Objectives 4
1.4 Hypothesis 5
1.5 Limitations 5
CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review 7
2.1 Classification of adhesives 7
2.2 Molecular structure of starch 27
2.3 Forms of processed starch 29
CHAPTER THREE
Materials and method 32
3.1 Materials 32
3.1.2 Method 32
3.1.3 Extraction of starch from cassava 32
3.1.4 Production of adhesive from cassava 33
3.2 Test analysis 34
3.2.1 PH determination 34
3.2.2 Determination of tack time 35
3.2.3 Solid / moisture content determination 35
3.2.4 Wettablilty determination 36
3.2.5 Storage life determination 36
CHAPTER FOUR
Results 37
4.1.0 PH values 37
4.1.1 Tack time determination 38
4.1.2 Solid and moisture contents 38
4.1.3 Wettability 38
4.1.4 Storage life 39
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Discussion, conclusion and recommendations 40
5.1 Discussion 40
5.2 Conclusion 42
5.3 Recommendation 43
Reference 45
APPENDICES
Appendix A – classification of adhesives
Appendix B – solid and moisture content
determination
Appendix C – standard glue samples and their
Characteristics.
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURES
GLUCOSE MOLECULES
LINEAR AMYLASE STARCH MOLECULES
BRANCHED AMYL PECTIN STARCH MOLECULE
CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Essentially all adhesive can be classified as either organic or inorganic material and each of these groups may be further subdivided.
Some of these products are not new for example, the naturally occurring organic adhesives have been in use ever since, the first shellfish attached itself to a rock. And there is a good evidence o the ancient Egyptians using inorganic material to bond furniture. The development of adhesives has continued over the centuries to meet the requirements of various civilizations, but it was not until the industrial revolutioin that demands were made for major advances in adhesive technology. As a result of the availability of metal in large volume and the introduction of plastics, problem arises-including that of how to join this diversity of materials. In a quest to find the solutions to these problem, lead to the current development in adhesive technology. (lees, 1989).
Adhesives exist in a variety of forms, liquid paste, film, powder, granules and in solid forms. Materials being fastened together by adhesives are called substrates or adherends. For an adhesive to fasten a material it must displace sir and other contaminants on the surface of the material, this phenomenon is known as wetting while the resulting assembly is the adhesive joint. Compositions of adhesives include binders such as starch, solvent which is the media in which the binders are dispersed to become a spreadable liquid, gelatinzers fillers, thickeners and preservatives to control microbial activities.
Two types of adhesives exists, these are organic adhesives. The organic adhesive is subdivided into natural and synthetic adhesives. The natural adhesives include animal gllue, casein glue, starch e.t.c. while the synthetic adhesives include the thermoplaswtic resins, polyesters, urethanes e.t.c.
The inorganic type are the cement, soder and silicates. (Lees 1989).
A study of starch and its derivatives shows that starch is the principal water dispersible natural polymer used industrially as adhesives. Chemically starch is a carbohydrate having the empirical formular (c6H10O5)n. it is a soft white powder second in abundance only to cellullose. It occurs particularly in grains, example maize, sorghum etc, in tubers example cassava, yam and in stem example cassava, yam and
In stem example sago palm.

It must be emphasized that starch-based adhesives are produced as a result of the ability of starch to gelatinize at a certain temperature. The gelatinizattion process involves hydrolysing of the starch to form gel, paste or solution. Starch based adhesive also include the degraded or converted starch such as dexxtin.
Adhesives generally found its applications in industries and starch-based applied in packaging labeling, book-binding, leatherworks etc. essentially adhesives especially the synthetic types found their application in components needed to make many products such as aircraft, corrugated cartons, plywoods, automobiles, envelopes, stamps, non woven fabrics etc.
The adhesive produced in this project will find its application mainly in paper bonding. Starch-based adhesives are cheap because, the raw materials are cheap because, the raw materials are cheap, readily available and give

DETERMINATION OF HYDROGEN CYANIDE IN CASSAVA

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ABSTRACT

Cassava is one of the major dietary stable for a large percentage of the population of tropical Africa and other parts of the world, and is likely to remain the biggest single source of calories for the poor in the continents. An important drawback to increase cassava use for human and animal feeding is its cyanogenic potential, or ability to generate hydrogen cyanide, a well – known poison with potential acute and chronic metabolic effects in human.
This project work deals with the determination of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) concentration in cassava tubers (using the bitter varieties) collected from Institute of Management and Technology (IMT) premises with respect to four days fermentation period using Atomic Absorption spectrophotometer (AAS).
The result shows that the concentration of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) decreases with increase in fermentation period, and based on the safe limit given by the us food and drug administration (FDA) and others, a safe fermentation period for cassava before processing it to produce garri is deduced.
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction 1
1.1 Hydrogen Cyanide 2
1.2 Aims and Objectives of The Study 4
1.3 Statement of Problem 5
1.4 Hypothesis 5
1.5 Scope of Study 5
CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review 7
2.1 Chemical and Physical Properties of HCN 9
2.2 Entry of Hydrogen Cyanide into the Body and
Its Exit from the Body 11
2.3 Effect of Cyanide on Health 14
2.4 Symptoms of Cyanide Poisoning and Treatment 18
2.5 Safety Factor and Procedures for Cyanide Identification 21
2.6 Cassava and Cyanide Concentration 25
2.7 Factors Affecting Cyanide Toxicity 27
2.8 Sources and Control Methods for Hydrogen Cyanide 28
2.9 Uses of Cassava 32
CHAPTER THREE
Methodology 34
3.1 Materials for the Analysis 34
3.2 Method of Analysis 35
3.3 Personal Hygiene Procedures 36
3.4 Sample Collection and Fermentation Process 37
3.5 Sample Fermentation 38
3.6 Sample Preservation and Storage 39
3.7 Acid Distillation 40
3.8 Distillation Procedure 40
3.9 Calibration Standard Preparation 42
CHAPTER FOUR
Result and Discussion 43
4.1 Concentration 44
4.2 Safe Fermentation Period 46
4.3 Cassava Processing Technique 46
4.4 Innovation to Cassava Processing 48
4.5 Seasonal Influence on Cyanide Content of Cassava 50
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Conclusion 52
52 Recommendation 52 References 54
Appendix I 56
Appendix II 56
Appendix III 57
CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Cyanide, is usually found in compounds. It can interact with metals and other organic compounds. Cyanide refers to all of the cyanide compounds that can be determined as the cyanide ion, CN. The cyanide ion is a conjugate base of a weak acid, hydrogen cyanide, which is an extremely poisonous gas with an almond odor. Other forms of cyanide compounds are sodium cyanide (NaCN) and potassium cyanide (KCN). Cyanide can be produced by certain organism (e.g bacteria, fungi and algae), and equally present in plants. Cyanide ion is one of the most rapidly working po isons. Lethal doeses taken orally act in minutes, cyanide, poisons by asphyxiation, as does carbon monoxide, but the mechanism is different. Instead of preventing the cells from getting oxygen, cyanide interferes with oxidative enzymes, such as cytochrome oxidize, which is vital to every cell in use of oxygen. Oxidizes are enzymes containing metal usually iron or copper. Cyanide binds tightly to the enzyme cytochrome C and forms stable cyanide complexes with Fe3+ ion and inactivates the enzyme system.
Much of the cyanide in soil, water and air comes from industrial processes gold mining, waste waters from starch industry. The major source of cyanide in water are discharges from metal mining processes, other sources include exhaust, release from certain chemical industries, municipal waste burning and use of pesticides containing cyanide. Underground water can be contaminated by cyanide present in landfills. In other body, cyanide can combines with plants foods including almonds, millet sprouts, lima beans, soy spinach, bamboo shoots and cassava roots, cyanide occurs as part of naturally occurring sugars or other complex organic compounds.

1.1 HYDROGEN CYANIDE
Chemical formular: HCN
Synonyms: Hydrocyanide acid, prussic acid,
forminitrile, carbon hydride nitride
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) was discovered by scheele in 1982. He made it by heating sulphuric acid with Prussian blue; hence the old name was prussic acid. HCN occurs in nature as glycoside amygdalin in some plants, for almonds, cassava etc. Hydrogen cyanide together with sodium cyanide and potassium cyanide are the most of cyanide likely to be found in the environment as a result of industrial activities. Its presence could be found in air, water, soil, and even in gaseous state (present in solution in cassava root), with a faint, bitter, almond like odour. It is a potential metabolic poison present in some food crops and other plants.
Hydrogen cyanide is a small molecule composed of a carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen atom joined together by a stable triple bond. This poison is best known for its inhibition of many enzymes that are important in animal metabolism. Enzymes are proteins that act as catalyst in biochemical reaction.
It could be made to act as an anti-herb ivory compound to discourage plant consumers (pests). Most often, it attaches itself to other molecules in the form of cyanogenic glycosides. In example of one such compound is amygdalin (from stems of cherry, apricot etc). In this form, cyanide is non-toxic to the plant, only in the breakdown of cyanogenic glycosides, during animal consumption or digestion, is hydrogen cyanide released. For example, cows feeding on some species of grasses containing cyanogenic glycosides became ill as they chew on the grass, in this fashion, it is hypothesized that cyanide in non lethal does effectively deters herbivory.
Some cyanide containing plants are listed below (plants and relative cyanide level):
– Cassava (+ + + +)
– Lima beans (+ + +)
– Sorghium (+ +)
– Millet (+ +)
– Bamboo Shoots (+ +)
– Sweet Potatoes (+)
– Maize (+)

1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The aim of this project is to determine the effect of fermentation period (time) on hydrogen cyanide concentration in cassava tubers and to suggest safe and efficient processing technique of cassava in order to reduce hydrocyanic acid concentration thereby enhancing the consumption of cassava without health hazard.
1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Since high concentration of hydrogen cyanide is fatal to human and other life species especially when consumed and is lethal to the

COMPLETE MATERIAL COST 2500. BUY NOW

THE EFFECT OF OIL SPILLAGE ON SOIL PROPERTIES AND PLANT PERFORMANCE IN WARRI AREA.

ABSTRACT
The effect of oil spillage and other industrial wastes on our environment have been a major concern in the Warri area. This write up provides a detailed study of oil spillage. It also contain an overview of soil composition and fertility in the Warri area.
Finally this project highlighted the consequences of oil spillage on soil and crop performance in the Warri area. The effectiveness of various results obtained depends on the nature of oil, relative properties of the soil and soil environment. Also this work gives some possible control measures to check spillage.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Abstract vii
Table of contents viii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 introduction 1
1.1 The nature and consequences of environmental pollution 2
1.2 aim and objectives 3
1.3 statement of problem 4
1.4 limitation of study 4
1.5 justification of study 5
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 literature review 6
2.1 soil and its properties 6
2.2 soil survey and soil particle size distribution in warri 8
2.3 oil spillage 10
2.4 causes of oil spillage 11
2.4.1 Mechanical failure 12
2.4.2 Operational discharges 12
2.4.3 Sabotage 12
2.4.4 Natural hazards 12
2.4.5 Corrosion 13
2.5 effects of oil spillage on soil properties and crop performance 13
2.6 soil solution 15
2.7 soil acidity 16
2.8 soil temperature and its effect 16
2.9 soil fertility 18
2.9.1 soil element 19
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Methodology 21
3.1 materials 21
3.2 Methods 21
3.3 Laboratory analyses 22
3.3.1 Determination of soil ph 22
3.3.2 Determination of organic carbon 22
3.3.3 Determination of total – nitrogen 24
3.3.4 Determination of calcium 25
3.3.5 Determination of soil temperature 26
3.3.6 Determination of alkalinity 26
3.4 Study area. 27

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Experimental result 28
4.1 Discussion 29
4.1.1 Soil ph 29
4.1.2 Organic carbon 30
4.1.3 Total nitrogen 30
4.1.4 Alkalinity 30
4.1.5 Temperature 31
4.1.6 Microbial count 31
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Conclusion 32
5.1 recommendations 33
5.2 Possible control measures 33
Reference. 35
CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the oil producing areas, oil pollution has become a problem that calls for urgent attention due to its devastating effect on the environment. Oil pollution has a detrimental effect on the ecosystem and its effect are usually very visible and sometimes very devastating.
According to Nelson, (1999) pollution is said to occur when there is a release into the environment of substances and energy in quantities which are detrimental to man and other living organisms.
The environment here comprises of the Landscape ie soil, air, bodies of water, streams and lakes. There is also evidence that due to the activities of man, there has been a release into the soil substances that affects the soil structure, crop performance and the vegetation at large.
The effect of man’s operations on terrestial environment includes the interferance with the structure of land surface, the immediate sub-surface, streams and lakes. Petroleum and its components that have been released into the environment is eventually degraded into simple compounds of their constituent elements by physiochemical or biological agencies of the soil with or without human assistance and that had become innocuous after a long period of time.
Thus, when oil spillage occurs, its effects are usually pronounced on the soil flora and fauna as well as the soil structure.

1.1 THE NATURE AND CONSQUENCIES OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
The nature and scope of environmental pollution which result mostly from the activities in the oil industry varies extensively. These activities include:
i. Unhealthy disposal of waste crude oil and chemical used during drilling, oil production, and processing.
ii. Indiscriminate channelling of liquid and semi-liquid waste into nearby streams, river and landscape.
iii. Oil spillage
iv. High level noise from the machinery.
The socio – economic and environmental impact of these activities result to:
i. Destruction of vegetation and other associated wide life.
ii. Damage to soil and crops by heat and the attendent loss of sources of livelihood.
iii. Pollution of air, land and water resulting in the destruction of both plant and main life and the alteration of the ecosystem.
iv. Contamination of the ground water.
v. Fire oiutbreak, explosion, and degradation of the environment.
It is worthy of note that while the oil industry in Nigeria ranks high in the ladder of environmental polluters, it is also the most actors in combating pollutions.

1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
The occurance of these oil spillage mostly in the river area of Warri has led to the mass