CHAPTER ONE

1.0    GENERAL BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 

This research work is based on the aspects of noun Bura noun phrase. The study forms an important aspect of the syntax of the language. By syntax, we mean the branch of linguistic analysis which involves the arrangement of words to form grammatical sentences a rule governed way. It should be noted that there are many aspects of syntax, but this research will focus on the noun phrase of Bura language.

A phrase could be described as group of words that forms an integral part  a sentence. There are different types of phrasal categories, for example Noun, Verb, Prepositional, Adverbial, Adjectival phrases etc.  Each phrasal category is named after the lexical category that   heads the phrase.  For  instance,  a verb heads a verb phrase, a preposition heads a prepositional phrase.

In this chapter, we will carry out a survey of the historical background of the language, socio­linguistic profile under which we shall describe the occupation, marriage, religion, festivals, culture and beliefs, language status and the genetic classification of the language. Government and Binding theory is used as a theoretical   frame work the analysis of the study.

1.1         HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The pabir and bura are ethnically different, but both speak the bura language. They are the major tribes Biu and Askira L.G.A’S of Borno state and Gombi L.G.A of Adamawa state. The population of bura people in Borno state is about 230,000 and there are about 46,000 speakers of the language in Adamawa state.(.N.P.C 2005).

The Bura’s lived north of Biu before being attacked by yata-ra-wara around the 16th century. The few people yamta brought with him intermarried with the Bura’s and built the Biu dynasty into a kingdom. Those descendants of yamta’s group were called Pabir or (babur),this is why the Pabir and Bura’s differ considerably in culture appearance until today, The Pabir are the ruling class among e Bura people and the Bura villages pay tribute to the Emir of Biu, the Bura’s still resent the Pabirs.

 1.2 SOCIOCULTURAL PROFILE

The following could be observed among the Bura’s. The language bura is seen means of communication in the market and is also used in teaching in primary schools. The Bura’s found in Biu and Askira L.G.A’S in Borno state and Gombi L.G.A in Adamawa state. Their main language is Bura but they also speak Hausa, Chibok, Fulfude and a few speak Marghi.

1.2.1CULTURAL HIGHLIGHTS  

The Bura people did not circumcised their boys until the practice was introduced around the 1920’s. Boys are circumcised around the age of 7. When a female child is born, a suitor may propose by throwing a leafy branch of a certain tree in her mother’s kut. If he is accepted, he gives gifts as the girl grows up. He works on her father’s farm and makes zana matting for them. When she reaches marriage age he captures her and bring her to his house, then the remaining part of the bride price is settled and arrangements for the marriage ceremony are concluded.

The bride is usually expected to produce a white cloth stained with the proof of her virginity and it may be displayed with pride, her parents will be ashamed if she is not a virgin.

Another form of courtship/marriage is for a boy to look over the girls while they are collecting firewood or fetching water, when he sees the one he likes he asks her to marry him and if she agrees, he gets about 8 or 10 strong fellows to capture her and bring her to his house then the marriage ceremony is arranged. As a sign of respect, a man does not eat with his parents-in-laws, when an old person dies he/she is buried on the second day, when everyone has gathered in the evening. The grave is wide circular shaft at the top, about knee deep then a smaller round shaft is dug from the bottom of this into a loor of cavity. There is a traditional dancing for seven days after the burial, and if the deceased was an important person it last 14days, during which rituals are performed. There is dancing with beating of drum and things belonging to the deceased that show who he was are displayed, such as his/her tools and weapons. This is done till date, sometimes professional mourners are invited on one of the mourning days, the Fuinchambwi dance is done. The male dancers jump from the roof of the hut of the deceased back again until the roof destroyed. After this the date is fixed for the last mourning or sadaka, which is held about 6 months later but usually during dry season.

1.2.2      CHIEFTANCY

Originally the Bura’s had no central government, now the Emir of Biu appoints the district heads (Ajia) who then approve he appointments of the village heads (Lawans). Today both titles belong to certain families. The village heads appoints the ward heads (Bulamas) over small villages and wards of larger ones. Anyone who has leadership ability ca chosen as a Bulama.

1.2.3      RELIGION

The Bura had their traditional religion before Islam came around 1920 and Christianity later in the 1920’s.Today these three religions can found among the Bura’s.

In traditional religion the Supreme Being is called Hyel or Hyel-taku, they approach Hyel through Haptu. Hyel they claim created everything, but a Haptu is a personal god who takes care of the individual. The Haptu have shrines where people worship and offer sacrifices. The gods are represented by various objects such as water (a lake or river), stones, mountains or forest. Usually there is an attendant or priiest through whom consultations is made of the Haptu. Most sacrifices are on saturdays so it is a special day. some gods are for particular clans, and there is no unified form of traditional religion for the whole tribe. One of the Haptu(gods) is Dlaminpr Kampeka,a large being living in space. His chief priest is called Mthakur Haptu, there is a Mthakur Haptu in each village.

The most common of the gods is represented by a covered pot kept by a family head. At the beginning end of the dry season in times of stress, he offers a chicken to the pot for the health of his household. The practice of traditional religion has now largely disintegrated before Islam and Christianity. However witchcraft is still done. The belief that ancestors becomes when they die and still influence what happens in the world has not really died out.

The total number of Bura Christians is under 60, 000, the percentage of Christians is actually less than 20%, though more may be nominal adherents. A rough estimate of the religious percentage is as follows: Muslims-78%, Christians-20%, Traditionalists-2%.

There is a certain amount of understanding between the Muslims and Christians which prevents too much religious tension in the tribe, but this does mean Muslims do not persecute relatives converted to Christianity.

1.2.4         OCCUPATION

The people of Bura are mainly agriculturalists as they engage themselves in planting of crops like maize, guinea corn, groundnut and rice. Among them there are also weavers, fishermen, hunters, woodcarvers etc.

Fig. 1.2.4 Fishing Occupation of Bura People 1.2.5            FESTIVAL 

Since the Bura people are mainly engaged in farming all their festivals are farming related, as they organize harvest festivals before fresh harvests are eaten.

An example is the maize harvest festival performed before fresh corn can be eaten, it is believed that it is sacriligious to eat an harvest before the harvest festival, hence all farmers adhere to this law.

Fig. 1.2.5 Maize Harvest Festival of Bura People

1.2.6  CULTURE

The bura people have a rich culture, preserved and handed down from generation to generation. They are simple country people, they believe in justice, modesty, equity and fairness. They are accommodating and live in peace with their neighbours. Talking about their mode of greeting they greet more or less like Hausa’s they bend down or kneel down to greet each other.

1.3                                 GENETIC CLASSIFICATION

Africa                                     fig. 1.3

Afro-Asiatic

Egyptian     Semitic    Cushitic      Omitic            Berber                Chadic

West  Chadic  Biu Mandara        East Chadic                               Masa

Tera group    Kotoko group    Bura group            Tligi group       Mandara group Matakaru group  Bata group  Suko group

 

Chibak     Kiba      Bura (pabir)     Kiba             Mangi              Putai

  Source: Comrie, B. (1987).

1.4     SCOPE AND ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY

This research will focus its attention the Noun phrase of Bura language. This work aims at giving a detail syntactic analysis of the Noun of Bura language.

This  work  attempts to discuss the arrangement or combination of words to form phrases, clauses and sentences in Bura. This description will also focus and some of the peculiar features of the language.

This  research work consist of five chapters. Chapter one deals with the introductory aspect of the work,  that is the sociolinguistic profiles of the dialect, its historical background, socio-cultural profile, genetic classification, scope and organization of the study, theoretical framework. The second chapter centers on the basic syntactic concepts, where we intend to analyze the phrase structure rules as well as the lexical categories and sentence types based on Government and Binding theory.

The third chapter will examine the noun phrase of  Bura, areas as noun phrase position, noun phrase function, complementizers and the noun phrase construction.

The chapter four centers on all the levels of linguistics analysis in the language, that is the transformation processes. Chapter five will present the summary as well as the conclusion on the entire work.

1.5              THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 

Theoretical framework adopted in this work Government and Binding theory(G.B theory). This Government and Binding theory was proposed by an American linguist named Noam Chomsky in (1981),as a reaction to transformational generative grammar to account for all and only the representations that underline the grammatical sentence in a language.

Government and Binding theory is modular deductive theory of grammar. Proponents of G.B often maintained that there is no such thing as roles of language. But only the principles and parameters whose values can only vary from one language to the other do exist with specified units.

Chomsky (1995:15-16) remarks as follows, ‘The principles and parameters approach held that language have no rule in anything like familiar sense transformation and no theoretically significant grammatical construction, except taxonomic artifacts’. There are universal participles and finite array of options as to how such principles apply (parameter) but no language particular roles.

It is also worthy to note that though Government and Binding theory is a common label of this model of syntax, it is misleading because it gives undue prominence to the two elements of Government and Binding, whose status was not fundamentally superior to the other sub-theories like x-bar, theta, case e.t.c. Hence, the ‘principles and parameters theory has come to be seen as a closer to it essence.

 1.5       DATA COLLECTION

The method employed for data collection is the bilingual elicitation approach, involving English and Bura language. The data were elicited with the use of the Ibadan four hundred wordlist, which consist of basic list simple words.

Apart from the 400 wordlist, phrases and sentences in English were translated to Bura, by a Bura native speaker. The data collected were subjected to analysis.

Oral interviews were conducted in English language and answers were given in Bura language by my informant. The answers to this questions were used in the syntactic analysis of Bura language.

Below are the full details of my informant

Name: Abdulahi Ahmed

Age: 42 years old.

My informant is a native speaker of Bura language.He is from Gombi local government area in Adamawa state. My informant speaks the following language: English, Hausa and Bura.

But due to the busy schedule of my informant at the time in which this research work is been carried out  was unable to provide all required informations needed to complete this work, hence additional information was seeked by the researcher online leading to the discovery of a Bura dictionary prepared following a workshop in Jos, 24-25 April, 2009 and represents a major shift in terms of orthography and definitions etc. as prepared by Roger blench of www.rogerblench.info/RBOP.htm E-mail trogerblench@yahoo.co.uk

1.7             DATA ANALYSIS

In this research work,the data was collected form my informant both in writing and recording an audio cassette then the analysis of the data collected was carried out using Government and Binding theory of syntax as proposed by Chomsky (1986). This research work will be

limited to the aspect of noun phrase.The informant used was fluent in the language, his fluency and competence formed the basis of his choice as my informant.

1.8          BRIEF REVIEW OF CHOSEN FRAMEWORK

Government and Binding theory refers to theory of syntax propounded by Chomsky (1981,1982,1986). This theory is a radical revision of his earlier (1965,1987) theories was revised in a minimalist programme for linguistic theory (1993).

The name refers to central sub theories of the theory.                 Government can be referred to as an abstract syntactic relation and Binding deal with the referents or pronoun R-expression.

G.B was the first to be base on the principle and parameters mode of language, which also underlines the later development of the minimalist programme. Government and Binding is a theory of universal grammar, which is one system of all the principle that are common to all human languages (Haegeman 1991:13) It is otherwise known as principle and parameter the in the sense that .GB, the grammar is a continuos interaction between components and sub theories embedding different principles and parameters (cook 1988:31). It has two levels of representation related by transformation rule move alpha.

Move  alpha is stipulated by movement, that is the syntactic level is elaborated by the concept of movement (cook 1988:30). G.B requires two levels of syntactic representation. The deep structure (D-structure) which is the level at which we obtain all information on the words and their combination, it consists of base rules, lexical rules, strict sub-categorization, selectional restrictions, phrase structure rules (yusuf 1997:68).

It is the level at which elements in the sentence are in their original location (cook 1988:30).

We also have the surface structure level ( S-structure) which is the level at which some components in the sentence have been moved. The s-structure is clearly generated from the D-structure by the application of movement rules. There is relationship between deep structure and the surface structure, they are related by movement.

1.9        THE SUB-THEORIES OF G.B

Chomsky postulates a set of interacting sub-theories each of which deals with some control area of grammatical enquiry. Each of these may be subject to parametric variation. That is to say, it is assumed that the grammar of languages vary in only finitely many ways with respect the domain covered by sub-theory. All these -theories of G.B theory operates in a modular form, this theory itself is referred to as modular deductive theory of grammar. The sub-theory assumed are the following.

i.     X- bar theory

ii.    Theta theory

iii.   case theory

iv.  Binding theory

v.    Bounding theory

vi.  Control theory

vii.  Government theory

 1.9.1       X-BAR THEORY

X-Bar syntax replaces large numbers of idiosyncratic rules with general principles. It captures properties of all phrases and its bases on lexicon. The principle is that a phrase always contains a head of the same type.

It defines the possible phrase structure configuration of language in general. The control notion is that each of the major lexical categories  (Noun, Verb, Preposition and Adjectives), is the head of structure is dominated by a (phrase, Verb: verb phrase e.t.c) for example Noun phrase (NP) is headed by a Noun. It comes after possible constituents in the example below.

‘That house’

NP                                Fig. 1.9.1

Spec       N’

Det       N

That    house

X-bar encompasses projection principle which shows how head moves to its maximal projection. It projects the characteristics of lexical entries into the syntax which link the D-structure to S-structure an LF to the lexicon by specifying the possible context in which a particular lexical item can occur   projection from the head to the maximal is shown below.

XP- Maximal projection

X’- Intermediate

X – The head

All NPs have the same two bar level structures even if specifiers and complementizers are not actually present putting the levels of specifier and complement together, the structure of a phrase consist of two levels, arbituary using particular specifier and complement positions.

X”                                              Fig. 1.9.1.2

Specified             X’

X                 Complement

G.B claims that these two level are necessary for all types of phrase. X-bar theory proposes that all phrase in al langu

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 CHAPTER ONE

                                      INTRODUCTION

1.0.    General Background

This chapter introduces the language of study, the people speaking the language and their geographical location. It introduces us to the background of the speakers of the language which includes their culture and beliefs.

Also, a brief explanation of the scope of the study, Method of Data Collection, Genetic Classification and the Theoretical framework used in carrying out the research on the language are discussed.

This research is aimed at describing the Bura Negation. Bura is a language Spoken in two (2) local government areas in Borno State. The two local governments’ areas are Biu and Shani respectively. The Bura people are about 250,000 in population.

1.1.    Historical Background

According to oral history, Bura speakers were believed to had their origin from the Northern part of Nigeria in Borno State. The State shares border with Niger Republic, Chad Republic and Cameroon Republic and Common boundaries with Adamawa, Gombe and Yobe States.

The Bura lived north of Biu before being attacked by Yamta – ra – wala around 16th Century. The few people Yemta brought with him intermarried with the Bura and built up the Biu dynasty into a kingdom. Those descended from Yemta’s group were called Pabir (Babur), this is why Pabir and Bura differ considerably in culture and appearance.

Until today, the Pabir are the ruling class among the Bura, and all the Bura villages pay tribute to the Emir of Biu. The Bura still resent the Pabir.

Apart from Bura they also speak Hausa, Chibok and Marghi and also few of Fulflde. The Bura speakers are approximately over 250,000. The Pabir and Bura are the major tribes in Biu and Shani Local Government Areas of Borno State.

The Map of Bura Communities is shown below:

 1.2   Socio- cultural Profile

This center on the socio-cultural background of Bura people in terms of their occupation, Religion, festivals and ceremonies. The following information the socio-cultural profile of Bura people was collected through oral source.

1.2.1 Marriage System

Bura has a way of marriage policy when a female child is born, a suitor may propose by throwing a leafy branch of a certain tree into the mother’s hut. If he is accepted, he gives gifts as the girl grows up. He works on her father’s farm and makes Zana matting for them when she reaches marriage able age, he organizes his friends to capture her and bring her to his house. Then the remaining part of the bride price is settled, which is not a insists amount and arrangements for the marriage ceremony are concluded.

Also, thing   that are normally given in the ceremony is basically kolanut, salt and a white linen. The bride is usually expected to produce a white cloth stained with the proof of her virginity and it may be displayed with pride. Her parents will be ashamed if she is not a virgin.

As a sign of respect, a man does not eat with his parents-in –law.

1.2.2   Festivals

The only festival held in Bura is the maize harvest festival and is performed before fresh corn can be eaten. Bura man who has lost a father or mother selects three heads of corn, usually from his first fruits, dresses it carefully and puts it on a tray which he sets by his head at night.

1.2.3 Chieftaincy

Originally the Bura had no central Government. Now the Emir of Biu appoints the districts head (Ajia) who then approve the appointments of the village heads (Lawans).Today both these titles belong to certain families. The village heads appoint the ward heads (Bulamas) over small villages and wards of larger ones. Anyone who has leadership ability can be chosen as a Bulama.

1.2.4  Religion

The   Bura had their traditional religion before Islam came around 1920 and Christianity later came in the 1920’s. Today these three religions can all be found among the Bura. The traditional religion is called Hyel or Hyel- taku, but Naptu is a personal god who takes cares of individual. The gods are represented by various objects such as water, stones, mountains or forests. Most sacrifices to gods are made on Saturday, so it is a special day, the chief priest is called Mythmaker Haptu

Christianity was introduced through the missionaries The proportion of Christians is small compared to the entire population.

Despite the  presence of churches in many towns and villages, lslam is still the predominant religion among the Bura. A rough estimate of the religious percentages is as follows: – Muslims 78% Christians 20% and Traditional 20%. Many Christians are nominal and many are not free from immorality.

1.2.5  Occupation

The main occupation of the bura people is farming. Minority of the people are subsidized farmers, though commercial farming is also practiced. The major crops are maize, guinea corn, groundnut and rice.

1.2.6 Burial Rites

Bura people celebrate death, when an old person dies, he or she is buried on the second day when everyone has gathered in the evening. The corpse of a chief is buried seated, but other people re laid flat on the floor of the cavity. There is traditional dancing for seven days after the burial and if the deceased was an important person, it lasts for 14days.

On one of the mourning days the Fulnchambwi dance is done. The male dancers jump from the ground to the roof of the hut of the deceased and back again until the roof is destroyed. After this the date is fixed for the last mourning or sadaka, which is held about six (6) months later, but usually during the dry season.

1.3     Genetic Classification

This essence of a genetic classification of a language is to trace the origin of the language and show it relationship with the other language.

Bura language belong to the Afro-Asiatic Family which is shown by the family tree below

Source “Comrie, B. (ed) (1987)

1.4   Scope and Organization of the Body

The main objective of this project is to study in details the type of negation strategies that exist in Bura language. Negation in Bura will be an sentence negation, auxiliary negation, imperative negation and interrogation negation. We shall also study in respect to transformation processes which involve modifications of constituents.

This long easy is divided into five chapters, the first chapter is the introduction chapter which contains the general introduction of the research work, the historical background of the Bura people, social-cultural profile, genetic classification, collection and analysis of data and the theoretical framework employed.

Chapter Two presents a phonological review of Bura language and the basic syntactic concepts like phrase structure rules, basic word order, lexical categories and sentences types. Chapter Three is on the negation in Bura language, while chapter four introduces us to transformational processes like focus construction, relativization. Chapter five summarizes and concludes the work.

1.5   Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework to be employed in this research is Government and Binding theory (GB). GB theory is a model of grammar propounded and developed by Noam Chomsky. This is done with the aim of covering Universal Grammar (UG) that is, the system or principles, conditions and rule that are elements or properties of all human languages.

In essence, negation as an aspect of syntax will be analyzed under the GB theoretical framework.

1.6      Data Collection

The method of data collection is contact method or informant method. We collected linguistic data for this study by making use of language informants who are native speaker of Bura language. The data were collected through the use of frame technique and the Ibadan word list of 400 basic items. Below are pieces of information about the informants.

1.     NAME: Ezekiel Simon Shelai

SEX:     Male

AGE:39 years

OCCUPATION: Lecturing

NO OF YEARS SPENT IN BURA: 26years

OTHER LANGUAGE SPOKEN: English, Hausa and Chibok.

2.     NAME: Mr. Bashir

SEX: Male

AGE:36 years

OCCUPATION: Civil Servant

NUMBER OF YEARS SPENT IN BURA: 21 years

OTHER LANGUAGES SPOKEN: English and Kanuri

1.7              Data Analysis

To ensure an efficient data analysis in this research, all data received are accurately transcribed. The morphemes that made up the phrases and sentences are also carefully glossed. The data collected are worked upon according to how the native speakers use it without imposing any extraneous rules or norm of correctness.

1.8                          Review of the Chosen Framework

The framework adopted in research is the Government and Binding (GB) theory. This is the theory that captures the similarities which exists between different categories of lexical phrases by assigning the same structure to them rather than having different phrase structure rules for VPs, NPs etc

Government and Binding theory deals with transformation. According to Radford (1988:419), transformation is the rule that deal with the act of changing the structure of one sentences to another structure through the concept of movement known as move alpha (move-α). This theory (GB) was developed to correct the lapses in Transformational Generative Grammar.

Cook (1988: 66), the theory of Government and Binding is an interlocking arrangement of principles and sub theories which interact in many different ways.

The Modular Theory of Grammar.

 

PROJECTION  PRINCIPLE

 

CASE THEORY

(Case filter)

 

Sells (1985: 25) and cook (1988: 33).

In the diagram above, no part can be considered in isolation from the rest. Government and Binding theory posit seven sub-theories of theory of grammar. The structures generated at various levels are constrained by a set of theories, which define the kind of relationship possible within a grammar.

These sub-theories of Government and Binding theory are given below:

i.                     X- Bar Theory

ii.                                                                                           Theta (θ) Theory

iii.

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CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The main focus of this research work is a discussion on the verb phrase of Gunganchi language. This chapter therefore aims at introducing the work by discussing some historical facts about the Gunganchi people and the language itself. Justification for the study as well as the scope of the work is examined in this chapter. The chapter will also give information on the genetic classification of Gunganchi language and then attempt a brief review of our chosen framework, the government and binding theory.

1.1            GENERAL BACKGROUND OF THE LANGUAGE

Kebbi State, the home of Argungu international fishing and cultural festival came into existence as a political entity on the 27th August 1991. It was carved out of the former Sokoto State with its headquarters in Birnin kebbi. From available source given by informant, Kebbi State spreads alluringly over a vast expanse of land of approximately 36.229 square kilometres representing 3.9% of the total land area of Nigeria.

In this wonderful endowed land lives a population of 3,238,628 (2006 census) people bounded by a long winding history and inspired by memories of spectacular accomplishment. At present, the state is made up of four emirates (Gwandu, Argungu, Yauri and Zuru) which are further divided into 21 local government areas: Birnin Kebbi, Ngaske, Yauri, Sakabo, Zuru, Dandi etc.

Kebbi State has diverse ethnic groups. The dominant amidst them are: Hausa, Fulani, Kabawa and the Gunganwa. The distributions of these ethnic groups show that the Gunganwa (speakers of Gunganchi) are found in Yauri local government. (Informant)

1.2            HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE SPEAKERS

The Gunganwa also known as the Bareshe people by their

Hausa neighbours hail from Yauri Local government area of

Kebbi State. This local government area has a total population of seventy four thousand nine hundred and sixteen people (74,916). They are only found in Yauri local government and call themselves ‘Guresha amidst’. History has it that they came from an island called “gungun” which means water and “Ganwa” which means people that are surrounded by water.

1.3            SOCIO – CULTURAL BACKGROUND

Every community has its distinct way of life. The way people eat, what they wear, their mode of marriage, etc. differ in various societies. The Gunganchi people don’t have an exception as they also have their own cultural values just like every other community.

Gunganchi as a language is the mother tongue in Yauri local government area of Kebbi State. It has neighbouring tribes like hun – saare, Lopa and Hausa.

1.3.1    OCCUPATION

Gunganchi people are dominantly farmers and pre-dominantly fishermen. They practice both subsistence and commercial form of farming but they major on cultivation of land and growing of crops for the sustainability of their households. They also engage themselves in fishing using cage called “suuru” and they use ‘Hauwuyu’ for farming but now they have started using hoes, cutlasses etc. They farm and fish depending on the season and their major crops are guinea corn, beans, rice and onions. They are also noted for canoe – making.

1.3.2     RELIGION

Following the 1804 Fulani Jihad, the Gunganchi people are mostly Muslims. They also have few pagans and idol worshippers. According to the informant, research has shown that 70% of the Gunganchi people are Muslims while 29% are traditional worshippers and 1% practice Christianity. Despite these ethnic diversities and religious differences, the Gunganchi people live in peace with one another.

1.3.3    ADMINISTRATION

Gunganchi people adopt the emirate system like their

neighbouring community. Their location is a multi ethnic area consisting of Lopa, Yauri, Laru etc. and the palace of the emir is in Yehwa, but the Gunganchi people are the first settlers in Yauri. Hereditary succession is not adopted in this emirate and the Emir is appointed based on the fact that he must be elderly, famous and respected among the people.

Turbaning is done for the new emir amidst celebration with burukutu (a local drink made from millet). The Emir rules the territory with local chiefs called Sariki. However, the local government chairman holds the executive function of the Yauri Local Government Area and other governmental works are executed by the Kebbi State Government.

1.3.4    FESTIVAL

Their major festivals that are celebrated with pomp and pageantry are Idembe which is the millet festival and Anipo festival. During the Anipo festival, animals like goat are sacrificed. These festivals bring all Gunganchi speaking communities together.

1.3.5    MARRIAGE AND BURIAL RITE

1.3.5.1 MARRIAGE

Marriage in Gunganchi community is a bit complex especially for men. In Gunganchi community when a man signals his intention of marriage to a lady, the man’s parents inform the lady’s parents. Before the lady’s parents agree to such proposal, the man must farm for his in-law for an unspecified duration. He farms until the parents of the lady become satisfied. After the farming they formally announce their intension and a date is fixed for the wedding.

On the wedding day the man’s family go with guinea corn because no bride price is needed. The marriage is based on Islamic rites and the marriage ceremony is fun and full of merry making. The Gunganchi people also encourage inter marriage most especially with Hausas.

1.3.5.2 BURIAL RITES

During a Gunganchi burial ceremony, the corpse is lowered into the ground and covered with leaves. Like most tribes the death of an aged person is celebrated and that of the young person is mourned. Sudden or unusual death is usually investigated and the oracle is consulted to find out the cause of the death. The killer of the deceased is said to be killed by the spirit of the dead. The oracle that are consulted are the Gigo (true God) and Ujigo (god of thunder and iron). This is a traditional rite performed on the dead.

1.3.6    CULTURE

The Gunganchi people are highly cultural people. This

reflects in their normal ways of life which will be discussed below.

1.3.6.1 CLOTHING

Before the present day of westernization and civilization the Gunganchi people cloth themselves with animal skin. They make various styles from these animal skins. They now make use of ‘banbariga’ (traditional dress for the man) and loose clothing with local embroidery tied around the woman’s body to wade off the sun. There are also heavy tribal marks on the woman’s face and tattoo on the legs during wedding ceremonies. However some of them still make use of animal skins till date.

1.3.6.2 FOOD

The Gunganchi people take guinea corn pap as their best food. They like guinea corn that most of them prefer keeping it than selling it in the market. Guinea corn pap is served at occasions like wedding, naming and during other festive periods. Burukutu (local gin) is their favourite drink and is served during their leisure time.

1.3.6.3 NAMING CEREMONY

When a child is born, he is named after seven days. His hair is shaved and after ten years the child is circumcised.

1.3.7. EDUCATION

Before the advent of western education, the people have a way of teaching morals and skills within their community to their children. They hereby teach and impact knowledge to their children right from birth. Hence when western education came it was warmly embraced by the Gunganchi people. However Gunganchi language was also used in teaching Islamic studies to their children.

1.3.8 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

In this study an attempt is made to identify the following;

1 The pattern and arrangement of words in Gunganchi     language, i.e. word order;

2       The lexical categories of Gunganchi language

3       The transformational processes in Gunganchi language

4       Combination of words to form phrases and sentences in Gunganchi language

5        Rules that apply to structure of phrase in the language; and

6        Classification of verbs in Gunganchi language.

1.4 GENETIC CLASSIFICATION

Murit Ruhlen states that “The idea that groups of languages that share certain systematic resemblances have inherited those similarities from a common origin in the basis of genetic classification.

A genetic classification thus makes two statements. Firstly it affirms that certain languages are in fact related to each other (i.e. share a common ancestor). Secondly, it specifies how the languages are inter-related in the form of a branching diagram.

Gunganchi language falls under the Niger-Kordofanian

language family. (Ross Jones 1992)

AFRICAN LANGUAGE

AFRO-ASIATIC                    NIGER             NUO SAHARAN                 KHOISAN

KORDOFANIAN

MANDE   NEW BENUE       ATLANTIC   VOLTA             KORDOFANIAN

CONGO                                   CONGO

OKO          DEFOID       KAINJI         IDOMOID        EDOID        WOLOF

WESTERN KAINJI                                                        EASTERN KAINJI

KAMUKU       KAINJI         GUNGANCHI       KANBARI     BASSA      LOPA

LAKE          (GUNGAWA)

FIG 1.0: GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF GUNGANCHI BY ROSS JONES

1.5                      SCOPE AND ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY

The purpose of the study is to closely examine the aspects of Gunganchi verb phrase. The Government and Binding (GB) theory will be examined and a detailed analysis of case theory will be carried out. There are five chapters in all.

Chapter one introduces the topic of the study, the language of study and the people. It gives a historical as well as socio- cultural account of the speakers including the genetic classification of the language.

A review of literature is carried out in the same chapter. Some earlier theories of grammar are examined in this chapter. The Government and Binding theory, which is the theoretical frame work used with its modules are discussed in details.

Chapter two examines the phonological concepts and basic syntactic concepts of the language. It also discusses the sound inventory, tonal and syllable inventories of the language as well as the lexical categories.

The structures of Gunganchi verb phrase as well as verb classification are accounted for in the next chapter.

Chapter four explains the transformational processes that occur in Gunganchi language. Finally in chapter five, a summary of the entire research, observation and recommendation are offered. The research will come to an end in the same chapter and the list of references is attached.

1.6   THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The theoretical framework used for this research is the Government and Binding (GB) theory otherwise known as principles and parameters theory. In the following sections of this chapter, attempts will be made to examine the details of the modules of this theory like case theory, theta theory, Binding theory and Government theory. A brief survey of some earlier theories of grammar will also be carried out.

1.7DATA COLLECTION

The method of data collection used in this project is the

contact/informant method. Linguistic data was collected for this study by making use of language informant who is a native speaker of Gunganchi language. The data was collected through the use of frame technique and the Ibadan word – list of 400 basic items.

Below are pieces of information about the informant:

Name: CORPORAL LABBO ALKALI

SEX: MALE

AGE: 40

OCCUPATION: SOLDIER

NO OF YEARS SPENT IN GUNGANCHI: 20 Years

OTHER LANGUAGES SPOKEN: HAUSA AND ENGLISH

1.8 DATA ANALYSIS

To ensure an efficient data analysis in this research, all data received are accurately transcribed. The morphemes that made up the phrases and sentences are also carefully glossed.

The data collected are worked upon according to how the native speakers use it without imposing any extraneous rules or norm of correctness.

The sub – theories of GB theory

As mentioned earlier, these sub – theories interplay and dictate what can be moved from where (extraction site) and to where (landing site). The modules account for ungrammaticality resulting from violations of rules and conditions. These modules include case theory, theta theory, binding theory, government theory, control theory and bounding theory. The relationship between one sub – theory and the other is shown below

               MODULAR THEORY OF GRAMMAR

X – BAR THEORY                                             Projection Principle

D – STRUCUTRE                                               Lexicon

Move – α                                                   θ – Theory

Bounding                                               (O criterion)

S – Structure

Logical form

Phonetic Form

FIG 1.1: MODULAR THEORY OF GRAMMAR

Sells (1985:25) and Cook (1988:33)

In the diagram above, no part can be considered in isolation from the rest. Government and Binding theory posits seven sub – theories of the theory of grammar. The structure generated at various levels is constrained by a set of theories, which define the kind of relationships possible within a grammar. The sub – theories of Government and Binding theory are:

i.                   X – BAR THEORY

ii.                 THETA THEORY

iii.              CASE THEORY

iv.              BINDING THEORY

v.                 BOUNDING THEORY

vi.              GOVERNMENT THEORY

vii.            CONTROL THEORY

1.8.1   X – BAR THEORY

X – bar theory is part of the grammar that regulates and brings out what is common in the structure of phrase. Cook (1988:94) says:

“In the X – theory, the phrase structure is a comparatively simple system derived from a few principles and the setting of certain parameters.”

A phrase always contains a head in X – bar theory thereby showing hierarchy among the constituents. Heads are terminal nodes that dominate words.

According to Haegerman (1991:105), two levels of projection are distinguished in X – bar theory. These are the specifier and complement positions respectively.

X ”

(Specifier)                 X ’

X               (complement)

FIG 1.2: X-Bar theory (Radford 2002:229)

X ’’ above ranges over all phrasal categories like Noun phrases, verb phrases, adjectival phrases, prepositional phrases, inflectional phrases and complementizer phrases.

X’ on the other hand stands for x and its complement where applicable. ‘X’ is a category variable that stands for any major word – level category like Noun, verb, adjective and preposition.

Specifier and complement represent grammatical functions or relations; they have a status similar to terms such as ‘subject’ or ‘object’. They are optional constituents for some phrases but obligatory for some others (Radford 2002:229).

The Gunganchi phrase structure is as outlined below:

CP → C’       specifier

IP → I’         specifier

NP → N’     specifier

VP → V’      specifier

AP → Adj    specifier

PP → P        specifier

Examples

1.     denya       aba

That          child

NP

NI             Spec

N              denya

aba

‘denya aba’

FIG 1.2.1

2.     irea ikùnuà

eat beans

‘ate beans’

VP

Spec                   VI

V                  NP

Irea                 Ikùnuà

FIG 1.2.2

3.     Lú     úkulù

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0    General Background

This chapter examines the language of study, the people speaking the language and their geographical location. It also introduces us to the sociolinguistic of the speakers of the language which includes their culture and beliefs. Again in this chapter, a brief explanation of the scope of the study, method of data collection, genetic classification and theoretical framework used in analyzing the Atsam Verb phrase are discussed.This study focuses on the Atsam Verb phrase. According to the Oral tradition, Atsam is a language spoken in Kauru Local Government Area of Kaduna State. Atsam is also known as Tsam while the people speaking the language are called Atsam.

1.1       Historical Background.

The Oral tradition has it that Atsam is an ethnic group in Northern Nigeria which is Kaduna. They are predominantly found in Kaduna, Plateu and Nasarawa States and Federal Capital Territory, this same tradition states that there was a lack of sufficient data as regards the study of language all because the languages of Kaduna are undoubtedly minority languages and as such, understudied.

The Atsam people were forced to migrate from one place to another and they are dominated by Hausa people meaning that the Hausa populations are more than Atsam population. The Atsam people were endangered because of pressure from Hausa and that has been the lingua franca in the North of the country. However, locally the language remains in use.

1.2       Sociolinguistic Profile.

According to the oral tradition, the Atsam people like some other tribes have their own unique ways of living and they are discussed below.

1.2.1  Marriage System.

In the Oral tradition, Atsam have their own way of marriage system which is a process carried out by the both parent of the boy and the girl, there will be an agreement between the two of them since when the children are still at their childhood stage till when they are grown up, but in most cases, the Groom will be more older than the Bride, an appropriate date for the marriage ceremony will set as soon as the bride began her puberty stage but now, the ancient procedure has changed because of civilization.

1.2.2  Religion.

The Oral tradition states it that Atsam people consider religion as of great significance in their lives, they make use of two religions in their community namely: Christianity and Islam. There is however, a third religion which is gradually dying off due to increase awareness in the two main religions. This third religion is the traditional religion popularly known as ‘dodo’ in the area and there are few of such followers of traditional belief at present.

1.2.3  Occupation.

The oral tradition has it that the main occupation of Atsam people includes subsistence farming, craft making, bee keeping, fishing, and petty trading. Traditionally, Atsam people are predominantly farmers, through there are few who are engage in other income generating ventures. But 8% of the populations are farmers depending on farming as their means to livelihood.

They also engage in craft making as a source of income, popular crafts making include; baskets, wooden, handle of simple farm tools such as hoes, cutlasses and shovels. Certain group of people in the area in bee keeping for the production of honey and the present of rivers at Kifffin Chawai, and Talo also enhance them in fishing as a source of income while petty trading are mostly done by women, but their of nowadays are now joining their female counter parts.

1.2.4  Administrative Setting.

According to the oral tradition of Atsam, the chief popularly known as Res-Tsam is the overall ruler in Atsam land. The announcement of laws that ensures peaceful co-existence and the maintenance of law and order within the chiefdom rest on his shoulders. He also performs the functions of lobbing government in bringing development programmes to the chiefdom.

Traditionally, the chief’s palace is located at Damakasuwa Chawai which is the headquarters for central administration with six districts. These districts include: Damakasuwa that covers villages as Kichiguya, Rafingora, Mangul and Kisari. The second District is Zambina with its headquarters at Ungwan Makama Chawai; it covers villages as Badurum, Kurmi Riga and Rana. The third district is Faden Chawai, and it covers villages as Kibobi, Talo and Riban. The fourth Pari with its headquarter at Kiffin Chawai, and it covers villages as Kiffin and Pari.

The fifth district is Kamaru with its headquarter at Kizakor and it covers villages as Kamaru, Kihoba, Kuyanboro and Kizakoro, the sixth district is Bakin Kogi. These districts heads are, however, supported by a number of village Heads within their domains. The village Heads also reports to the district heads and the Ward Head is popularly known as Mai’angwa in their tradition.

1.3       Genetic Classification of Atsam.

The idea that groups of languages that share certain systematic resemblances have inherited those similarities from a common origin is the basis for genetic classifications.

Ruhlen (1987) describes Genetic classification as a form of a tree diagram showing the origin of a language from a common ancestor, and it is related to each other genetically to other languages. Atsam language belongs to the platoid group of languages under Benue-Congo group of Niger-Congo phylum of Niger-Kordofanian language family of African languages.

The language family is represented below:

AFRICA

 

Fantsuam    Gong          Kore           Atsam           Tyap        Piti Atsam    Jjuu

 

Adapted from (Blench, 1992:94).

1.3.1  Geographical Location Of Atsam

Today, the Atsam Community are in Kauru Local Government of Kaduna State and they are also in Lare, Zangon Kataf and also in PlateuState. Zangon Kataf is about 5 kilometers distance from Atsam.

Apart from the Atsam people, there are other neighboring communities that can speak Atsam language like Hausa people, Pari people and Rahama Chawai, people that are living in Atsam, Kataf and Zango.

The populations of Atsam people are about 30,000 as of the 2006 census.

1.4       Scope and Organization of the study.

This project research describes the Atsam Verb Phrase. Its examines the structure of verb phrase in Atsam language and the processes involved in the verb phrase constructions. This processes and examples are analyzed using the model of Government and Binding theory. This research work is organized into five chapters.

Chapter one introduces the general and the historical background. Also in this chapter, the sociolinguistic profile of the people and genetic classification of the language are presented, it gives a brief discussion of the theoretical frame work adopted in the long essay and explains the mode of data collection and the analysis.

Chapter two discusses the basic syntactic concepts, like phrase structure rules, lexical categories basic word order as well as the types of sentence in Atsam language.

Chapter three focuses on the Atsam Verb phrase which is the main target of this research. In chapter four, we discussed the transformational processes that involve verb phrases in Atsam language.

Chapter five gives the summary of the work with recommendations and the conclusion of the study.

1.5       Theoretical Framework.

Theories have been set up for analyzing language data to enhance a systematic account of the linguistic presentation of knowledge of a native speaker of a language, such theories are used in theoretical frame work for analysis of data in a language. These include: Traditional or classical Grammar, Transformational Generative Grammar, Government and Binding Theory, Structural or Taxonomic Grammar, Systemic Grammar and Minimalist Programme. The framework used in analyzing Atsam language data is Government and Binding Theory, which is otherwise known as principles and parameters theory, also referred to as modular deductive theory of grammar. It has been chosen because it shows the structure of different phrases in all the languages. It tries to capture similarities in all languages by assigning the same structure to them.

1.6       Data Collection.

The data collected for this research work was through the help of an informant, a complete native speaker of Atsam language, with the use of ‘Ibadan list of 400 basic items’. The list covers the vocabulary items of parts of the body and food items, among others. Frame technique was also used in collecting various phrases in the language. This method enables us to study the word order system as well as to syntactic processes in Atsam language. Tape recorded was used as a back up to these methodologies and the informant Mr. Magaji Sunday, a native of Kauru in KadunaState.

1.7       Data Analysis

Data analysis is the implementation of discovery what it entails in the language under study and it is based on the production of forms by the speaker.

This work will be analyzing the data using the model of “Government and Binding Theory” with its sub-theories by exemplifying Verb Phrases and the transformations.

1.8    Brief Review of the Government and Binding Theory

This theory is an off-shoot of traditional or classical grammar (Sanusi, 1996:19). According to cook (1988:30), Government and Binding theory elaborates syntactic levels through the concept of movement. This theory explains the universal Grammar as introduced by Chomsky (1981). Government and Binding theory is a modular deductive theory of grammar that posits multiple levels of representation related by a transformation rule called “move alpha (a)” (Radford, 1988:401).

The modules of grammar is also known as sub-theories, they are related in a modular form and sub-theories of Government and Binding theory are: X – bar theory, Binding theory, Bounding theory and Control theory, these sub-theories embodies the different principles and parameters (Cook, 1988:159). The interrelationship of sub-theories of Government and Binding Theory:

X-BAR THEORY

 

DEEP STRUCTURE

 

PROJECTION PRINCIPLE

 

(Adapted from sells (1985) and Cook (1988)).

1.8.1 The X-Bar Theory (X-Theory)

The X-bar theory was first introduced in his grammatical analysis by Chomsky (1970), in his article entitled ‘Remarks on Nomination’. The X-bar theory is designed to formalize the tradition notion called ‘head’ of a construction and constraint to range of possible phrase structures rules. The heart of the system is the recognition that the lexical categories: Noun, Verb, Adjective, Preposition are the heads and the project of other phrasal nodes Np, Vp, Adjp, and Pp respectively.

XII

 

According to Ayankogbe (2002:21), X-bar theory is essentially a theory of syntactic categories: according to which for any category X, there is fixed hierarchy of units. As proposed in Chomsky (1986). X-bar convention states that every maximal projection has a specifier of XP position with one Intermediate bar projection serving as the XP’s core. This core consists of head (XO) and the complement, which is maximal projection in itself.

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—-*322*082#

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CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

1.0. General Background

This research work focuses on the Noun phrase of Kaningkon language. However, this chapter introduces us to the language understudy, Kaningkon language. It also introduces us to the socio-cultural profile of the speakers of the language; the culture and beliefs, occupation, mode of greetings, the common foods of the people and the geographical location of the language.

This chapter will also examine the scope and organization of the work, Method of data collection, Data Analysis, Genetic classification and the theoretical framework chosen for the analysis of the research.

1.1. Historical Background

Kaningkon language has several other alternate names like; Kaningdom Nindem, Kaninkon, Kaninkon-Nindem, Ninkyob-Nindem and Ninkyop. Kaningkon language is one of the languages spoken in jema’a local government area of Kaduna state, Nigeria ( Ethnologue, 2009). The towns where the language is spoken in jema’a local government include the following; Gértì,  Àgúáférí, Bàkín-Kogí, Béíshòp, Gósíkà, Àmèrè, Nìndèm and Zànkán. The speakers of kaningkon language are about 12,000 as at 2008 (Ethnologue, 2009).  Oral tradition has it that the speakers of the language are normally referred to as Ninkyop among themselves, which means rich person. Kaningkon people are said to have migrated from a place called Àngòláfò in the present day Katsina state of Nigeria. They are settled today in villages in Jema’a local government of Kaduna state, Nigeria. The villages include; Gértì, Àgúáférí, Bàkín-Kogí, Béíshòp, Gósíkà, Nìndèm, Àmèrè and Zànkán

Despite the fact that they are scattered in different villages, they still see themselves as one. They have a festival called Dunde Ninkyop that they usually celebrate together up till date. They are always proud to be referred to as Ninkyop

The speakers are still proud of their language and tribe. However, the language is not normally used in the church where there are other languages. It is not also being used as a means of instruction in both primary and post primary schools. The lingua franca is Hausa language.

1.2. Geographical location        

Kaningkon is spoken in Jema’a local government of Kaduna state, Nigeria. Jema’a local government is located in Kaduna state  between the latitude of 9° 11°and 9° 30°N and on the longitude of 8°  00° and 8° 30°E. Kaningkon is located in the southwestern part of Jema’a local government.  Kaningkon shared boundary with Kagoma in the south, Maigizo in the east, Godogodo in the west, kafanchan in the north and Nassarawa state in the south. Below is the Jema’a local government map showing Kaningkon.

Fig 1.1:     MAP OF JEMA’A LOCAL GOVERNMENT SHOWING                        KANINGKON

    Source:   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/jema’a

1.3. Socio-cultural Profile.

This unit shall focus on the socio-cultural profile of Kaningkon people. These shall include; the festival, marriage ceremony, occupation, mode of dressing, mode of greeting, administration, food and tourism attraction.

1.3.1. The festival of the Kaningkon people

The oral tradition also reveals that the only festival common to the Kaningkon people is called Dúndè Ninkyop. This festival started in the year 1999 after the crisis that claimed a lot of lives. The crisis occurred among the Kaningkon people in April, 1999. According to oral tradition Dúndè Ninkyóp is celebrated every year to appease god. It is used to seek forgiveness over the sin of the 1999 crisis.

The ceremony lasted for three days. It usually started on the last Friday of April with fasting and prayer. On Saturday there will be prayer session followed by cultural dancing. The Saturday celebration will end with feasting among the celebrants and well wishers. On Sunday which is the third day, everybody will go to church for prayer and thanksgiving, because they are predominantly Christians. This festival usually attracts people from in and outside the country. Governors, senators, business men and women, even the president are usually the guests.

Prior to the 1999 crisis, the festival that are rampart are chieftaincy title, coronation, funeral ceremony and marriage ceremony.

1.3.2. Administration among the Kaningkon people

The head of the Kaningkon is called Tum Ninkyóp. He is one of the autonomous chiefdom in Kaduna state. He is supported by chiefs.

1.3.3. Religion of the Kaningkon people.

The religion that is common to the Kaningkon people is Christianity.

1.3.4. Mode of dressing

The dressing of the Kaningkon people is unique. This is because for a Kaningkon man to be completely dressed, he must put on a cap, a short sleeve and a nicker.

1.3.5. Marriage ceremony among Kaningkon people

Just like any other African people, there is dating and courtship period among the Kaningkon people. Oral tradition has it that, the most interesting aspect of their marriage is the traditional aspect of the marriage.

The groom’s family will pay dowries to the bride’s family when the groom announces his intention to marry a particular girl. The dowries include; goats, fowls and wine. The elders will be invited from both the bride’s and groom’s family to pray for the couple. Traditional dance will then follow. They will thereafter proceed to the church for prayer and thanksgiving.

1.3.6. Occupation of the Kaningkon people

The dominant occupation of the Kaningkon people is farming. The farming is for both subsistence and commercial purpose. Every members of the family is involved in the farm work.

The major crop they grow include rógo (cassava), chó (corn), pitat (guinea corn), and dóya (yam).

1.3.7. Greetings among the Kaningkon people.

The mode of greetings of the Kaningkon people is honorific in nature. The younger people will kneel for the elders when they are greeting them. Some of their greetings are.

Wáà súnà          ‘good morning’

Yáà nsórí            ‘good afternoon’

1.3.8. Common food among Kaningkon people.

The common food that the Kaningkon people cherished most is ‘Túo’. This is made from chó (corn) flour.

Other foods include rógo (cassava), pitat (guinea corn) and dóya (yam). These foods are grown in large quantity in the area.

1.3.9. Tourist attractions of Kaningkon people.

The only tourist attraction that usually brings people from far and near to Kaningkon kingdom is called Dúndè Nínkyòp. The celebration of Dúndè Nínkyòp attracts people from all works of life to their kingdom. Governors, senators, top government workers, business men and women are always the guests. It also attracts people from outside Nigeria.

1.4. Sociolinguistic profile of Kaningkon language

Oha (2009) defines sociolinguistics as the study of the relationship between language and society, of language variation, and of attitudes about language. Kaningkon language is one of the several languages spoken in Jema’a local government of Kaduna state, Nigeria. The language is being used among the native speakers within themselves. The attitude of the native speakers towards the language is positive. The language is the language of communication in any social gathering that involves only the Kaningkon people. Such gatherings include political gathering, village meeting, naming ceremony, funeral ceremony and so on. The language is socially active within the native speakers. This is the only hope that is saving the language from death.

However, wherever the language has contact with other languages like Ayu, Yeskwa, Anib, Fyem languages and so on, in the same local government, the preferred language is usually Hausa which is their lingual Franca. Kaningkon language does not have wider coverage. That is, it does not extend beyond the region (Jema’a local government of Kaduna state, Nigeria).

  1.5. Genetic Classification of Kaningkon Language

Genetic relationship is the usual term for the relationship which exists between languages that are members of the same language family (Wikipedia, 2008). Kaningkon language belongs to Southwestern Platoid language under the Benue-Congo a sub-family of Niger-Congo language family (Blench, 1998). This can be diagrammatically represented thus:

AFRICA

Niger-Congo               Khoisa                  Nilo-saharan           Afroasiatic

West        mande            kru      Benue-Congo   Adamawa          Kwa                 Gur

Eastern

Junkunoid                   Platoid                            Bantoid                            Cross- river

Tarokoid

Southern  Western  Northern    North       Eastern     Southwestern

Eastern

Legeri          Ningye      KANINGKON            Che            Hasha         Sanga

   Fig 1.2   Adapted from Blench (1998).          

1.6. Scope and organization of the study

This research work focuses on the noun phrase of Kaningkon language. The whole work shall consist of five chapters in all. The chapters are divided as follows.

Chapter one shall focus on the introduction to the work. Under this chapter, we shall examine the general background, the historical background, geographical location, sociocultural profile and the genetic classification of the language. The chapter shall further examine the scope and organization of the study, the theoretical framework, data collection and analysis. We shall also review briefly, the chosen theoretical framework.

Chapter two shall focus on the basic phonological and syntactical concepts of Kaningkon language. Under these, we shall be examining the sound inventory and syllable structure of the language. We shall also look at syntactic concepts like phrase structure rules, lexical categories, phrasal categories, basic word orders and sentences.

Chapter three shall examine the noun phrase of Kaningkon language which is the focus of this work. We shall examine the position of noun within the Noun phrase, such as the modification of Noun phrase by adjective, determiner and preposition. The chapter shall also look at the syntactic roles of Noun phrase in a sentence.

In chapter four, we shall focus on the transformation processes such relativisation, negation, question formation and reflexivisation.

Chapter five shall give the summary and conclusion of the work. This chapter shall also include the recommendation that is relevant to the development of the language.

1.7. Theoretical framework

According to Sanusi(1996:18 ), some of the earlier formal theories of grammar that have been developed and used as methodological tools for analyzing language data include the following; Traditional or Classic Grammar, Structural or Taxonomic Grammar, Systemic Grammar, Transformational Generative Grammar (TGG) and Government and Binding (GB) theory. Such theories are used as theoretical framework or methodological tools for analyzing language data (Sanusi, 1996)

The Government and Binding (GB) theory shall be used in this work to analyze the noun phrase of Kaningkon language. Government and Binding theory is chosen because; it seeks to capture the similarities between different categories of lexical phrases by assigning the same structure to them (Cheryl, 1999:5). We shall examine the Government and Binding theory in details subsequently

1.8. Data Collection

There are two types of data collection, the informant method and introspective method (Sanusi, 1996:15). The method used in collecting data for this work is informant method. Informant method is a method whereby a native speaker of the language under study provides relevant linguistic information about his language (Sanusi, 1996:15). Our informant is Mr. Williams, Emmanuel. He is a native of Àmèrè in Jema’a local government of Kaduna state, Nigeria. He is thirty years old. He spent nineteen years in his home town. He works with Nigerian police force in Ilorin.

We make use of ‘Ibadan wordlist of 400basic items’. In addition to this, frame technique was also used. Frame technique is a technical word for sentences prepared in English to get syntactical structure of the language understudy (crystal, 2008). Unstructured oral interview were also used in collecting data. This is to enable us get detail information about the sociocultural profile of the language.

1.9. Data analysis

The data in this work were taken from the informant and analysed using the Government and Binding theory. The Kaningkon noun phrase will be critically analysed using the theory mentioned above.

1.10. Brief review of the chosen framework.

Government and binding theory has been chosen as the framework for the analysis of Kaningkon noun phrase. Government and Binding (GB) theory was introduced by Chomsky (1981). The theory explains the universal Grammar. Udofot (2009:146) explains that Government and Binding theory is an advanced form of universal grammar. According to Udofot (2009), it is a more generalized model of grammar. It studies the grammar of languages in general, not individual language grammar.

According to Radford (1988:401), Government and Binding theory is a modular deductive theory of grammar that posits multiple levels of representation related by a transformational ‘move alpha’ (move α). Cheryl (1999:5) claims that GB seeks to capture the similarities between different categories of lexical phrases by assigning the same structure to them. According to Udofot (2009:149), as a result of the organization of GB into modules, GB is said to have modular character.

Government and Binding theory is organized into sub-theories more technically known as modules. Horrocks (1987:29) opines that, the core grammar of a given language is derived from the interaction of sub-theories of universal grammar. These sub-theories are inter-related that each of them can account for grammaticality and ungrammaticality of any sentence.

The sub theories (modules) of Government and Binding theories are; x-bar (x’) theory, bounding theory, government theory, theta theory (θ-theory), case theory, binding theory and control theory. We can graphically represent the interaction between the sub-theories of Government and Binding as follow, as adapted by Yusuf (1998:23) from sell (1985) and cook (1988).

  X- Bar theory

D-STRUCTURE

Case filter

S- STRUCTURE

PHONETIC FORM

LOGICAL FORM

Projection

                                     D – STRUCTURE           principle

                                      Move α                       LEXICON

                                 (Bounding)

 Case theory          S – STRUC                   ϴ-THEORY

Case filter                ECP                                                              (ϴ- Criterion)

CONTROL

BINDING

Fig 1.3.  Modules of grammar 🙁 adapted from sells (1985) and cook (1988)).

We shall briefly explain these modules as follow:

1.10.1. The x-Bar Theory (X’-Theory)

Akmajian et al (2008:215) says that the basic idea of x-bar is that phrasal categories (eg VP, PP, NP, AP) all have heads that belong to the same category as the phrasal category. The core of the x-bar theory is the acknowledgement of the lexical categories such as Noun, Verb, Prepositions, Adjective, as the head of phrase. This head projects to their phrasal categories like Noun phrase (NP), Verb phrase (VP), Prepositional phrase (PP), Adjective phrase (AP). The head of the projection is zero (X°). Heads are terminal nodes. They dominate words.

Haegeman (1994:105) explains that X’ theory distinguishes two further levels of projection. Complements combines with X to form X’ projection; adjuncts combines with X’ to form X’ projections. Specifier combines with the topmost X’ to form the maximal projection XP (Haegeman, 1994:105).

In X’ theory node will continue to reduce from phrasal category to give the final satellites on the node.

XP

Spec                             X’

X’                             Adjunct

X°                       Complement

 Fig 1: Adapted from Yusuf (1998:33).

In the above schemata, X can be taken as the variable, which represents the lexical category (such as noun, verb, preposition etc), XP is the maximal projection that stands for the lexical categories, noun, verb, adjective or preposition which are the head of their phrases. XP projects to specifier and X’. X’ projects to X’ and an adjunct. And finally projects to X° (zero bar) and complement. The XP is the maximal projection, while the X’ is the intermediate projection and the Xº is the zero bar level which is the lexical category.  We can exemplify this using a Noun phrase in Kaningkon language.

1.   [ róm se gɔgɔgɔ ].

Man  art   tall.

‘The tall man’.

NP

Spec                                              N’

Det                                N                            Adj p

Det                     Adj ‘

Ø                               róm               se                         gɔgɔgɔ

Man             the                          tall

‘The tall man’.

In the above example, N’ [róm] ‘man’ head the phrase and Adjp is its adjunct.

In Transformational Generative Grammar (TGG), the phrase structure rule is.

S→ NP AUX VP

But under X-bar, a sub-theory of Government and Binding theory, the phrase structure rule is as follow.

CP→ Spec C’

C’ → C IP

IP→ Spec I’

I’ → I VP

VP → Spec V’

V’ → V (NP)(PP)(Adv P)  (Lamidi, 2000).

    1.10.2. The Theta Theory (θ- Theory)

Okolo (2008:78) says that the function of θ- theory is to explain how syntactic structure determines the assignment of θ-role to a particular constituent of a sentence. In other words, θ-theory shows θ-roles as assigned to the argument of a sentence. A θ-role assigned to a constituent within the predicate (verb phrase) is called internal θ-role while a θ-role assigned to the subject of a sentence or outside the predicate (verb phrase) is called an external θ-role (Cheryl, 1999). The internal θ-role is an internal argument while the external θ-role is an external argument. The role assigned to a noun by the verb is the thematic relation between the noun and the verb. Argument is the noun phrase in a sentence, the subject noun phrase and the object noun phrase. The Object Noun Phrase is the Direct and the Indirect object. For example,

[ róm zá sir mu kàsúwá ].

Man buy yam in market.

‘The man bought yam in the market’.

[ róm zá sir mu            kàsúwá ]

Subject   direct object   indirect object.

The following are the common theta roles; Agent, Patient, Source, Instrument, Goal, Locative, Theme, Benefactive and Experiencer (Yusuf, 1998).

A.  Agent: the agent θ-role is an actor that performs the action in a sentence eg.

[ aúdù wῦ  jŏn ].

Aúdù  kill goat.

‘Aúdù killed the goat’.

Aúdù is the actor (agent) in the above sentence.

B.  Patient: the patient role suffers the action in the sentence. Eg.

[ bàlá ru ɣwamù ].

Bàlá beat wife.

‘bàlá beats his wife’

[ ɣwamù ] ‘Wife’, suffers the action.

C.  Source: this is the entity from which motion takes place.

[bàlá ru ɣwamù pε jɔ∫ɔ ].

Bàlá beat wife at meet.

‘Bàlá beat his wife at the meeting’.

[ jɔ∫ɔ] ‘Meeting’ is the entity from which the motion took place.

D.  Instrument: this is the object with which an action is performed.

[ verom wῦ jŏn to zig ]

Boy  kill goat with knife.

‘The boy killed the goat with knife’.

[zig] ‘Knife’ is the instrument in the above example.

E.  Goal: this is the entity towards which motion takes place.

[ járo tà wáse sεᵑ ].

Yáro give him basket.

‘Yáro gave him the basket’.

[ sεᵑ] ‘Basket’ is the goal in the sentence.

      F. Benefactive: benefactive is assigned to an object in whose favour an event takes place.

[ róm zá mi fufum ].

Husband buy me flower.

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