AN APPRAISAL OF PRESS FREEDOM IN AFRICAN SOCIETIES (A CASE STUDY OF NIGERIA IN PERIOD OF 2006 – 2010)”.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

• BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Siebert, Peterson and schramm in describing the Operation of the press in their book entitled four Theories of the press said that, “The press is not an instrument of government but rather a device for presenting evidence and argument on the basis of which the people can check on government and make up their minds as to policy.  It is imperative that the press be free from control and influence so that truth can emerge, all ideas can get fair hearing, that there must be a free market place of ideas and information”.

For the press to play their basic roles, it must exercise full its freedom.  In other words, for the freedom of the press to be fully appreciated, we must understand the implication of a citizen having a fundamental right to free access to facts in all matters that directly or indirectly concern them and also the right to express and publish its opinion there on.

It is in realization of these facts that the General Assembly of the united Nations organization on December 14 1946 declared that “Freedom of information is a fundamental human right and is the touch stone of all freedom to which united nations is consecrated.  In the same view a sub-committee of the common wealth press union headed by Lord Shawcross defined freedom of the press as “The freedom that is not a special privilege of newspaper but derives from fundamental right of every person to have full and free access to the facts in all matters that concern him……. In protection of these fundamental human rights, it is essential that the press should be free to gather news without obstruction to publish the news and coment there on.

From the foregoing, it can be argued that any obstruction on the press freedom is not merecy an attack on the press.  It is an indirect encroachment on the fundemental right of the citizen to have knowledge and information.  in fact, section 38 sub-sections 1 of the 1989 constitution concedes the right to freedom of expression and press by explicitly stating that, “every person shall be entitled to freedom of expression including.  Freedom to hold opinion and to receive and impact ideas and information without interference.

Prior to may 29^th 1999, the administration of Nigeria was predominated by the military regime.  In successive coups begining from July 1966, the military ruled the country.  In line with their coercive tendencies which of course sets them up every stratum of the society by those who rule by instrument of coercion.  This led to the use of force in carrying out most of the policies that were, however, not spared as in certain cases, headship of most parastatals under government control were change frequently especially those who could not implement such policies.  The media as the fourth estate of the realm was not spared from the military obnoxious policies.  Their controls which were determined by decrees led to out right closure, permanent.  Death, intimidation, etc.

At a point in time, stiffer penalties were imposed on the functions and operation of the press, making the atmosphere very difficult for them to operate.  For instance, decrees one and two were introduced by Buhari ldiagbon administration which subverted individual freedom and created social panic Decree enacted in 1984 which was the “public officers protection Against Fals Accusation”, also limited press freedom.  These reduced Magazines, newspapers periodicals, radio and television to mere “papper tigers”.

The incessant closure of newspaper organizations like the news watch April 6, 1987, the Punch April 1990, the Guardian May 1991, concord April 1992, tell magazine in August 1993 the champion and vanguard respectively were the order of the day.  The hounding of journalists in to jail over reports the government felt unfriendily with including Tude Thompson and Nduka Irabor who were jail under decree  in 1987.  others include, Chris Okolie, Innocent Okparadike Editor of the Observer in Ben Tony Ikeakonam August 1991 was demoted for using an inappropriate picture of the first lady, Nosa Igiebor, Ononie Whiskey may 1987, Nohammed Haruna 1987, Nduka Obiegbena 1988 etc.

Inundating media houses with threats of closure and assassination of their editors, one of which was the death of Dele Giwa, on 19^th October 1986 and the killing of the news reporter at Kano and other cases.  Although those regines may not entitely be written off as emenies of the media, they ushered in an atmosphere that led to competition among the various media organizations.  Because, research has it that excessive dictatiorial tendencies causes the press to become daring and dedicated to publishing the truth and committed to seeking for its freedom and expounding the peoples right to know.  Moreso, they acquire fame and become heroes if they are jailed, harassed or hammed.  This, they achieved using these obnoxious policies which never favoured the media, but in which the strived to survive by uncovering the misdeeds of the military to the delights of the society.

It therefore, becomes the survival of the fittest through articles, news stores , features and commentaries that will always sell the product of such media organizations.  It reduces some media houses into government megaphone for fear of being intimidated or closed down such media who owe their existence, control and sustenance on the government of the day depended on it for subvention as a means of survival.  Mostly affected were the electronic media and some print media owned and controlled by those in power.

Apparently, in pursuance of the democratic doctrine of freedom of speech and of the press, whether we regard it as a natural and inalienable right or not rests upon certain assumptions.  One of these states that men desire to know the truth and will be disposed to be guided by it.  Another is that the sole method of arriving at the truth in the long run is by the free competition of opinion in the open market.  Another is that since man will invariably differ in their opinions, each man must be permitted to urge freel and even strenuously his own opinion provided, he accords to others the same right.  And the final assumption is that from neutral toleration and comparison of divese opinions, the one that seems the most rational will emerge and be generally accepted.  The above statement could be said to have informed Babangida’s decision to open up or give access to move private participation in information generation and dissemination.

It therefore gave the nod for deregulation in 1989 to the media by issuing operating licensees especially on those who want to own and operate the electronic media.  This development led to the establishment of private radio and television houses in the country, thus breaking the electronic media industry.

Coming up on the heels of these regulation were stations like African independence Television (AIT), the minaj, the DBN, Rhythm’ 77, etc.  but in spite of these developments, the forture on the media continues; as today, newspaper like the concerd is no longer in existence owing to long period of closure by the military.  Likewise some other media houses that were closed down and opened some months before the exit of the military in the governance of the country.

Thomas Jefferson was a philosopher and a statesman who attempted to put his ideas into practice by fusing the liberalism, legalism and traditionalism of England with the more radical rationalism of France.  Although as a political figure he suffered greatly from the calcumnies of the press of his time, he held to his conviction that despite his errors and vituperations, “the press, should be subjected to a minimum of interference by the federal government, but he was quik to add that, a government which could not stand up under criticism deserved to fall.  And that the real strength of the federal government was his willingness to permit and his ability to withstand public criticisms.

He held that press freedom was implicit in the recognition of the insistent demands for the protection of the individuals from arbitrary power.

To Facilitate this, he maintained that “the individual in the society should be educated and informed.  He contended that the press was an essential source of information and guidance, and in order to properly perform its functions, it should be free from state control.

Jefferson therefore, recommended that the first approach towards press freedom was for the enthronement of democracy for the smooth passage of information, ideas, opinions and actions, aimed at, creating, maintaining and  increasing the greatest happiness for the greatest number of persons for the good of the society.  It would also aim at giving them the liberty of expression, of thinking and to act for themselves.

Consequent upon this, the Nigerian media decide to wade into the struggle fully by promoting those ideas which could be enjoyed by the society under a democratic rule and deonouncing those of the military.  It therefore turned out to be a struggle between an “oppressed media” and a government shrouded in promoting of policies that were not of public interest.  The impression created then was a polarized media, improverished citizens and a few hawks in the control and dominace of th affairs of society.  It therefore heightened the need for the enthronement of democracy, at least for the advancement of the media and other sectors of the economy.

In 1999 therefore, the military quit politics and the leadership of the country was handed to a democratically elected government led by Olusegun Obasanjo.  Under this administration, the press may have being said to have an air of freedom in the exercise of its constitutional role as the eye and ear of the society.  Although there have been some innovations in the operations of the media that may have resulted of the increase of technology.  Enough may not have been achieved in terms of ownership of the media in the last four years of the current administration.

Presently, in the print media industry not much have been achieved while the electronic media may not have achieved any at all.  The situation may be attributed to the soaring economic situation that is currently prevailing in the country and the coeritic political nature which does not seem to find or to led a solid foot path for the political stabilization of the society.  There is also the feeling of insecurity that has meditated agaist the excellence of economic activities.

Although the administration has done its best in initiating policies that can lead to the protection of industry and manufacturers, especially the local manufacturers, it has not done much in the area of information technology or highway that today is the order of the society in making the world global village.

There are still feelings that the news contents of the media are being doctored to fit or rather to suit the aspiration of those in power.  There is also a feeling that the coertic political nature of the society may have polarized the media in such a way that each pursues an agenda favourably to its ethnic origin or its ethnic consideration.

The other school of thought has it that the media have lost bite and is no longer that which fought for the enthronenent of democracy in the country this allowing a lot of mal-practices to have their way into the nations fabric.  While most people attribute this to their resolve in supporting the democratic dispensation, some others felt that the media for fear of being intimidated, they have succumbed to the feelings and aspirations of the government.

These issues therefore make this study very important as I will in the following chapters discuss the operations of the media in the current administration of president Olusegun Obasanjo; the attempt will hinge on providing solutions to some of the starting issues posed in this background.

 

• STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The study under review has the operations of the press as its epi-centre in the current democratic dispensation of Olusegun Obasanjo.  I am going to look at some of the polices that have undermined the social responsibility of the press, as well as policies that have favoured the activities of the press in the said administration.

Is the word press freedom in existence in the true sphere of life and if so, how does it function? Or are they determined by the kind of government in operation from society to society?

 

• OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To understudy the problems militating against press freedom in Nigeria.
2. To understudy how the press has operation in Nigeria since 1999.
3. to understudy what the future holds for the press in the event of discontinued governance of president Olusegun Obasanjo.

The results achieved here will enable me to say in concrete terms whether the press should be left free or should not be left free in the discharge of their statutory functions.

 

• SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study is signicant in view of the negative feelings the present administration has received from its citizens and the belief that has press have played into the hands of government.  But it no longer carries her activities in line with the constitution that set them up.  Also is the fact that the present administration tends to intimidate the press on their activities, thus lending credence to the allegation that the press have been bought over.

 

• RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The basic assumption is that the press in any society is the ear and eyes of such society; it means that the society reposes its confidence in the ability of the media.  For this, bringing the activities of the people to the government and that of the government to the people is a sacred duty which must be carried out with all amount of responsibility.  But the argument lies to whether these responsibilities are carried out to the satisfaction of the masses on one hand and government on the other.  Again is the issue of who controls the media; for this the research questions will aim at exposing, assessing the performance of the media, the atmosphere in which they operate, even in the current dispensation and the freedom exists in Nigeria.

 

1. Whether press freedom exists in Nigeria, to what extent is the freedom applicable to the government and to the
2. Having the media compromised in the discharge of their statutory obligations

• What is the extent of influence of the government in the activities of the media?

1. Under civilian rule, have the media lived up to expectations?
2. The media are said to be agenda setters, how far have they gone in this responsibility?

 

• RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

HI:     Civilian rule will foster brighter prospect for the media.

HO:   Civilian rule will not foster brighter prospects for the media.

H2:    The media have thrived well in this dispensation than any other civilian rule.

HO:   The media have not thrived well in this dispensation than any other civilian rule.

H3:    Press freedom is guaranteed under civilian rule.

HO:   Press freedom is not guaranteed under civilian rule.

H4:    The press is used as instrument of government under civilian rule.

H0:    The press is not used as instrument of government civilian rule.

H5:    Government uses the press to pursue her own agenda than that of the masses under civilian rule.

HO:   Government does not use the press to pursue her own agenda than that of the masses under civilian rule.

HO:   Government does not use the press to pursue her own agenda than that of the masses under civilian rule

H6:    The media are presently being controlled by the Obasanjo’s administration.

HO:   The media are not presently being controlled by the Obasanjo’s administration.

 

• DEFINITION OF TERMS

APPRAISAL

          This refers to the assessment of an expert opinion on the value of an issue such as freedom.

PRESS FREEDOM

          This is refered to as the fundamental right of every person to have fress access to the fact in all matters that directly or indirectly concerns him and from his equal right to express and publish his opinion there on and to hear and read opinion of others.  In protection of these fundamental rights, it is essential that the press should be free to gather news without obstruction, to publish the news and comment there on.

 

CIVILIAN RULE

          This refers to the exercise of power or authority over a given society or country which does not have its roots or foundations from the armed forces.

GOVERNMENT

          This refers to the exercise of political authority over the actions, affairs, etc, of a political unit or people as well as the performance of certain function for this unit or body.

 

• LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

As indicated in my topic, my research shall deal precisely on an appraisal of press freedom under civilian rule presently being piloted or engineered by Obasanjo. I do hope to limit the study on assessing the performance of Obansajo on the media in the last three years.

Because of its nature, it could be said to be a virgin initiative in view of the fact that relevant materials and literature that would compliment the attempt are not available.  It has nonetheless propelled me into action to ensure that I at least meet with the obligations and requirement of the exercise.

Adequate sampling size is likely to pose threats to this research.  This is because not all the respondents may have exposure to problems which the press has encountered presently.  Again, the multi-cultured nature of the socity is such that the press could be said to be concentrated on few hands, thus giving a clear assessment of the incumbent vice-a-vice his relationship with the media becoming a bit difficult.

Financial constraints make me to streamline the research endeavor to meet the available resources.  The time frame in view of the crowded academic activities will equally limit my research effort.  All these as highlighted above are the several handicaps which I envisage will be limiting the sphere of this study.

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THE EFFECTS OF PORNOGRAPHIC MATERIALS ON YOUTHS

CHAPTER ONE

1.0       INTRODUCTION

• BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

This study “The effects of pornographic materials on youths” aims at identifying the influence of pornographic materials on the youths, with particular emphasis on the on the youths, with particular emphasis on the youths in two Nigerian Tertiary institutions. The study will be able to ascertain whether the widely hole view that pornographic materials do have adverse effects on the morals and behavior of youth is true or not.

 

However, this study will be narrowed down to pornographic films only. In view of the foregoing films began in the minds of people who came long before the film pioneers themselves. In attempt to capture and recreate motion can be traced to when civilization began, then cave drawings, which showed a horse with eight legs, the fleeting arrow from a hunter’s bow and even carefully detailed drawing of kings with on foot outstretched to suggest a walking motion.

 

Bitner J. R. (1989) said that history is somewhat  not clear as who deserved glory of inventing still motion pictures, but that Willias Dickson and Thomas Edison, were associated with the effects to move. George Eastmans contribution in photography beyond the world of still pictures from still cameras. He further said that it was from Edison laboratories that workable motion picture were realized and by 1891, Edison had constructed a crude motion picture studio workshop with headquarters in West Orange, New Jersey. The studio started the commercial motions picture industry in America. The studio was a Tarpaper shack dubbed “Black Maria” a series of very short films on such a Chinese Laundry followed the Black maria.

 

The films were shown in large contraption called a kinetoscope parlors became popular viewing area housed in everything from building to store fronts which were converted into rooms, where dozen of machines were wired up for paying patrons. Thomas Edison (1897), the inventor, was interested in improving on his devices and moving any produce from the shelf to the market place. He later introduced a new projector and took patent on the camera. His oversight, however allowed two brothers “The Lumiere” from France to develop their own system of motion pictures.

 

The earliest forms of pornographic film were seen in France during the 1920s. the development in France brought about furore and all sorts of condemnation from the public. For instance Louis Delluc cinema practitioner and also a French man said that the exhibition of such pornographic films contributed to melancholy, fatal condition, social and other negative attitude among the people.

Down here in Nigeria, pornographic films started pervading our country in the late sixities and become more rampant in the early seventies. Today pornographic films have become so prevalent, have access to them with reckless abandon.

 

Most of these pornographic films if not all are smuggled into Nigeria irrespective of the laws that are meant to check such excesses.

 

Nigeria, having a population of some one hundred million inhabitants and considerably greater economic cultural and human resources than most other African countries are often considered to be one of the foremost black nations. The  film industry in Nigeria, has come a long way and tends to be chocked up by the old structure of the colonial period. On one hand and carried forward by independent energetic and innovative producers/directors/distributors on the other hand. The production of films in Nigeria is comparatively very limited and the commercial careers of most of these films are often limited, although the Nigeria audience, like the African audience in general loves watching films.

 

There is no doubt that television and video films have reduced cinema theatre attendance for security reasons and also because it is more comfortable. Nigeria now prefer to stay at home  in front of their screen sets than to face the discomfort of most cinema houses and the risk of being robbed in the street and parking lots at night, only mainly tough guy’s go to cinema houses in Nigeria.

 

“Film” according to Black African’s greatest film producer Ousmance Senibene to stress that “A film is but a drawing belt, a vehicle that conveys an idea and by this, we will see that communicating knowledge and ideas, help people make their own decisions about the environment they live in. most times people send a variety of message with more than one meaning or trying to convey a meaning, but are understood the other way.

 

Moreso, film is categorized under mass media. Therefore, associated with the enormous influence and overwhelming effects of the mass media. To buttress this, Walter Lippman (1922) also said that the media do not only tell the people what to think but also what to think about. He went further to say that the media shape the picture in our heads.

 

Invariably, the force behind the influence of the media in any society lies essentially in the structure of their message system, that is, the range of values. Attitudes, taste views and perspectives which are routinely emphasized, projected and extolled through the media as desirable notions of what is important and right features of human social existence. But the critical issue here is that the mass media especially audio – visual, which constitute the main stream of this research, are accused of carelessly allowing some measure of their products to have negative impact on their various audience in the course of discharging their primary and secondary responsibilities to their mass user.

 

Consequently, audio – visuals or films have received greater share of this accusation because of their intriguing uniqueness as media, which employ both sights and sounds, furthermore, many media experts have emphasized on the capability of films in communications.

 

However, the social psychologist refused to help blames on mass media or films for high incidence of violence crime, rape and sexual pervasion among others in our society, instead they blamed it on what they described as social process. They counted that in this process, the most important influence on our values, attitudes and behavior are the small primary group to which we all belong, they list such primary group as family, peer group, church among other as having greater and more lasting impact on our lives and attitudes and behavior than the influence of films or media. In other words, they insist that media should not carry the entire blame for social vices like crime, sexual abuse, violence etc, which we witness and experience in our daily lives, they hold the view that they are anifestation of what the society itself constitutes and not on expression of what the people have seen, heard or read in the media.

From above, one can then argue and perhaps strongly, that exposure to a number of youths particularly of these attitude of youths are already relatively deep seated. The main thrust of the argument is that existing predisposition are at work before the during the youths exposure to media or films and that they in fact, largely determines the communication  to which the individual is exposed to what he/she remembers of such communications, how to interpret their contents and the effects which the media messages will have on him/her.

 

Many researcher conducted by some scholar however still refuse the above notion. For instance  Mac bride Etal observed;

 

“Modern communication, which disseminates unfamiliar, vivid, absorbing information and entertainment originating in urban centers and more accompanied by negative influence which can dramatically disturb established orders.”

 

Undoubtedly, these mixed feelings prompted this researchers to embark on this academic odyssey in order to ascertain the effects of pornographic films on youths.

 

Inferentially, there is no consensus of opinion on the power and capabilities of pornographic films or media to propagate sexual abuse, crime, violence etc., among youths by ways of projecting such message to them. The stand which one takes on this issue depends on individual perception and indeed, preposition towards the controversial topic. But the air of this research is to investigate this issue scientifically keeping emotion aloof.

 

That is to find out if there is any relationship between youths exposure to media portrayals of pornographic films and sexual pervasion/abuse among the youths.

• STATEMENTS OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

 

Undoubtedly, social scientist who are interested in the study of mass media particularly films effects have been involved in the efforts to find out the relationship between media and anti – social behavior like crime, violence, sexual pervasion, abuse and rape, among others. There has been series of other researches and counter researchers which show that audio – visual media can be described as an all powerful, all pervasive and all manipulative medium capable of producing the most vociferous outburst through the portrayal of pornographic, violence, and other immoral alts.

 

Therefore, this project is geared towards ascertaining if sexual crimes pervasion and abused among the youth could be attributed to their exposure to pornographic film.

 

 

 

• OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

 

The study in question is very important to the Nigerian society especially now that we witness,

 

1. To find out the various reasons why youths responds or practice.
2. To determine the extent to which the youth responds or practice behavior acquired from viewing pornographic films.
3. To proffer useful suggestions and recommendation in this area of study.

 

1.4       SIGNIFICANT OF THE STUDY

The study in question is very important to the society especially now that we witness all sorts of negativistic tendencies among our youths. Therefore, the researcher holds the view that there do exist significant effects of pornographic films on youth.

Moreover, the youth constitute an essential fragment of every family and society. Consequently, the society and government in particular should pay a lot of attention to all issues affecting the welfare of the youth. The effects, which pornographic films have on youth, constitute one of such issue if not checked, such effect of pornographic film are likely to influence the youth to be along negative line, for instance indulging in sex abuse and pervasion.

 

The significance of this study therefore is as follows:

 

1. to examine how pornographic films negatively affect the youth so that the government and society at large can control and eradicate them.
2. To ascertain how effective the various existing laws aimed at controlling pornographic film have been faring in the responsibility assigned to them.
3. To find out if the sexual pervasion among the youths could be attributed to their exposure to pornographic films.
4. To contribute to the knowledge already existing in this area of study.

1.5       RESEARCH QUESTION

 

• Do audience exposure to pornographic films have effects on them?
• Do pornographic films tends to prompt to youth to replicate what they have viewed.
• Can sexual pervasion/abuse that are prevalent in our society today, among the youth be related to their exposure to pornographic films?
• Do youth exposure to pornographic films have negative or positive effect on them?

 

 

 

 

• RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

 

H_I :      Audience exposure to pornographic films has some effects on them.

H₀ :      Audience exposure to pornographic films does not have effects on them.

 

H₂ :      Pornographic films prompt the youth to replicate what they have viewed.

H₀ :      Pornographic films do not prompt the youth to replicate what they have

viewed.

 

H₃ :      Sexual pervasion and abuse among the youth  are related to their exposure

to pornographic films.

H₀ :      Sexual pervasion and abuse among the youth are not related to their

exposure to pornographic films.

 

H₄ :      Audience exposure to pornographic films have negative effects on them.

H₀ :      Audience exposure to pornographic films do not have negative effect on

them.

 

 

 

1.7       CONCEPTUAL AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS

 

The variables for this study “The effects of pornographic material on youth are conceptually defined as follows.

 

EFFECTS CONCEPTUAL DEFINED

The conceptual definition of effect is the impression produced on the mind of a spectator, bearer, reader, viewer etc.

 

EFFECT OPERATIONAL DEFINED

The operational definition of effects is as follows positive effects;

• Neutral effects
• Negative effects
• Positive effects : This refers to those effects which are in line with the accepted societal standard and values or which tend to encourage the development of the youth along this line
• Negative effects : This refers to those effect which discourage the youth from developing along  accepted societal standard and values. Several types of behavioral and emotional responses of a relative or anti – social nature of youth may be associated with exposure to pornographic films.
• Neutral Effects : This refers those effects which are neither positive nor negative. It is a condition whereby exposure to pornographic films do not have any effects on youth.

 

PORNOGRAPHIC MATERIALS CONCEPTUALLY DEFINED

The conceptual definition of pornographic materials are the representation of erotic behavior in books, pictures, statues motion pictures etc. That is intended to cause sexual excitement.

 

 

PORNOGRAPHIC MATERIAL OPERATIONALLY DEFINED

The operational definition of pornographic material are films that are made solely for sexual arousement and featuring and explicit sexual acts.

 

YOUTH CONCEPTUALLY DEFINED

A person who has the quality or characteristics of the young e.g. youthful freshness or vigour, youthful wantonness, folly or rashness, youthful appearance or aspect.

 1.8      LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This research basically will focus on the effect of pornographic films on youth. The study will be restricted within two Nigeria tertiary institution, due to time constraints, lack of logistics and financial problem.

The study will dwell exclusively on pornographic films alone. Under this dispensation, pornographic film are the explicit portrayal or exhibition of sexual acts on television films, cinema films and film that have such orientation. On other words, the media that will be involved in this research are audio/ visual only.

• ASSUMPTIONS

In determining the effect of pornographic materials on youth, this research makes the following assumptions;

 

• That the youth in question are normal and are not mentally retarded and can also reason properly
• That the youth are expected to and do not view pornographic films.
• That the pornographic films on media and to which the youth are exposed to either, directly or indirectly affect them.
• That the youth are not isolated in that they live in any environment and at the same time be exposed to other stimuli that can effect them.

NOTES

1. Opubor E. A. amd Nwaneli E. Onuora : “The Development and Growth of the film Industry in Nigeria, Lagos, third press international (1995).
2. Wimmere D. Rofer and Dominick r. Joseph, mass media

Research United state of American, A Division of wardsworth         incorporation (1983)

1. Ebo J. Stella  Mass media and society, Enugu ACENA Publisher (1996)
2. Muller H. Gilbert, The Mc Graw – Hill Reader, United State Chicago, AC

NELSON Company (1996)

1. Segun Olusola (1995)    The Indigenous Film maker

Anartical  January 16, 1984

1. Usman Jimada (1990) Documentary film as a medium of Nigeria film

industry.A paper presented at the national film festival seminar, University of Jos, 1986.

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COMMUNICATION AND ITS PROBLEMS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (NIGERAI AS A CASE STUDY)

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

When we considered the ever widening harizon between the third world communication order in which we have unfortunately found ourselves and the counterpart in the computer controlled worlds, (the developed countries).

We could not help feeling that sense of consciousness to brace up with the challenges caused by this imbalance, this feeling has today motivated us into embarking on this laudable project. A genuine and committed pursuit to the amelioration, if not outright solution to these seemingly unattainable problems that bed evil our young but promising third world communication order.

• STATEMENT OF THE EXISTING PROBLEMS

Communication is synonymous with understanding when communication does not end with proper decoding, it means that understanding has been lost understanding can be impaired by a number of factors, prominent among them is noise. Noise is any factor in the communication process that does not enhance the proper understating of the encoded message.

Noise is one of the most difficult problems that effect, both the print and broadcast media. In broadcast media it comes in form of hooting noise, poor grammatical expressions etc. While in the print, anything that tends to derail the readers mind from the proper understanding of the encoded message is noise. Noise could be in form of wrong spellings, wring usage of words as well as wrong punctuation’s .

In interpersonal communication, noise could come in the form of shabby dressing of the communicator, a handkerchief bulging from the pocket of the communicator, or bad make – up. When the encoded message is distorted as a result of noise, understanding will be adversely effected, the essential of such communication will therefor be defeated.

Another major problem that face communication in developing countries is language problems. For a communication process be seen as successful, the decoding must be an indication of proper understating. In country like Nigeria, there are about 250 ethnic groups and several language as well as dialects. Our use of English language is most times hampered by the intrusion of our local and sectional dialects.

Mr. Chudi Amafili and Mr. AL. Gwe seem to recognize this in their unpublished lecture material on radio and television production. They advice thus.” The announcers voice must be natural a universal voice, one not tied to any local or sectional dialects. It is only   anaive mind who will not understand the extent of damage, this above mentioned factor can cause in our communication process. English language is not our mother tongue. It is our second language and therefore one whose usage is most likely to be affected by the underlying factors in our first language. The Yoruba’s for instance omit the letter “H” in the pronunciation of English words because of the restrictions in their language. The Hausas and the I bos are not free from this dialectic problem. This affect them both in pronunciation as well as pitch variations.

This language problem does not stop here, Mr. Mbaachu, the personnel manager to Nigeria coal co-operation Enugu in his unpublished paper argued that it is only when we are using our mother tongue for communication that we are at liberty even to the extent of inventing words, which according to him, is not the same when we use other people’s lnguage. According to him when one is involved in another person’s language on remains a learner and never an experts. No wonder them many communication experts advocate that local language media house should be established in the local areas to take care of majority of people in remote area. The next major problem, according to Mr. Mbaachu is the dynamic nature language both local care of majority of people in remote area. The next major problem, according to Mr. Mbaachu is the dynamic nature language both local and foreign. According to Mr. Okenwa, the former Head of department of mass communication, Institute of Management and Technology (IMT) Enugu, Conventional English demanded that one uses “ you are welcome “ as a response to an expression of thanks. This is not the same with what use to apply a couple of years ago another major problem that besieged communicators in the under developed countries like Nigeria, is lack of modern communication gadgets / equipment. Reginald Okochi, the press secretary to the Enugu State Government, in his address to the 1999. Association of mass communication students (ASMACS) IMT Chapter lamented his woes, when he was covering the presidency as a radio Nigeria reporter. He narrated the pains and frustrations they suffered when their counterparts in overseas, aided by their very sophisticated gadget, were able to punch their news to their studios, even from their presidential dateline, while he and his colloquies waited to fax their news at the nearest business centre. What a frustration ?

When one listens to telephone interview over the voice of America he will be forced to wonder there is nothing wrong with our local media house whose interviews and remote productions generally are riddled with noise and distortions and distortions. Our telecommunication system, station transmitters and even our studio equipment are so problem ridden, that they frustrate the efforts of our head working communicators.

Underdevelopment is indication of the poor state of economy of the country involved. It is another way of saying that a country is poor. Poverty is one of the greater set backs on the thirds world communication system. Its is almost foundation years now that the Nigeria broadcasting co-operating (NBC) issues licenses to private proprietors to establish and operate their own electronic media house, but till now only clappers broad, many system television and few other’s have been able to meet up the deadline not withstanding the further shift of the deadline. This situations can largely be attributed to the poor economic situation in the country.

Almost all our media, both government and privately owned ones are suffering from the problems posed by obsolete equipment. Radio stations such as Enugu state Broadcasting station collapses and ressurates at relatively short intervals. When Reginald Okochi was comforted with the question regarding the above mentioned station, during the 1999 ASMACS week he confessed that the problem has persisted because of lack of fund “bad economy” The last problem which is not the least among other problem is, the problem posed by the government and the law. The relationship between the press and the government has been described by many known communication scholars “an adversary relationship” the type of relationship that exist between the cat and rat.

 

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THE MEDIA AS AN INSTRUMENT FOR POLITICAL AWARENESS: (A CASE STUDY OF RADIO NIGERIA’S PROGRAMME “PRESIDENT EXPLAINS”)

ABSTRACT

This study is aimed at examining “The Media as an Instrument of Political Awareness” with particular reference to the Radio Nigeria programme “THE PRESIDENT EXPLAINS”.

This was with a view of finding out whether the programme had succeeded in achieving its aims and objectives.  It also includes the origin of the programme, a literature review, a statement on the methodology of study, an analysis of data, discussion of the data as well as a reference.

To carry out this research, one method of research inquiry was used.  This approach is survey method, which is the most relevant in determining the impact of media as an instrument for political awareness.

Two hundred questionnaires were distributed to the residents of Ikiriki Community in Enugu South LGA of Enugu State.  This area was chosen because it represents, in general terms, the rural population in the state.

The study revealed that the programme “The President Explains” is very popular among its audience.  An analysis of the data collected has proved that the programme has created some awareness on the audience.

CHAPTER ONE

• BACKGROUND OF STUDY 1
• STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM 6
• OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 8
• SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 10
• RESEARCH QUESTIONS 11
• RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS 12
• CONCEPT IONAL AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS13
• ASSUMPTIONS 14
• LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 15

 

CHAPTER TWO

• THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE RADIO 16
• THE RADIO AND PUBLIC AWARENESS 21
• SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW 36

REFERENCES                                                 36

 

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

• RESEARCH METHOD 37
• RESEARCH DESIGN 38
• POPULATION AND SAMPLE 39
• MEASURING INSTRUMENT 39
• DATA COLLECTION 40
• DATA ANALYSIS 41
• EXPECTED RESULTS 42

 

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS                                44

• DATA ANALYSIS 44
• RESULTS 44
• TESTING HYPOTHESES 49
• DISCUSSION 52

 

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS         55

• CONCLUSION 55
• RECOMMENDATIONS 55

REFERENCES.                                                58

CHAPTER ONE

 

INTRODUCTION

• BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

There have been four identifiable ages across time – the Dark, Medieval, Modern and now the Jet/Super Sonic/space and currently the information communication technology age.   According to Knott (1975:14) who said that, man has limited objectives and aspirations during the dark and medieval ages, due to the fact that, the world as at the threshold of modernity, the need for easy interpersonal contacts over appreciable distances was daunting but compelling.  As the saying foes, necessity is the mother of invention.  Against these backdrops, Samuel Morse stood out as agenius.  He developed a point to point communication system via wire with electrical impulses producing audible sound with surface, underground and underwater cables, it became possible to effect communication through morse code from points to points and across countries.

The morse code was a standard means of telegraphic communication for decades, even after popularization of telephones that was invented by Graham Bell in (1875).  The exploits of those who were busy with point-to-point communication encourage four virtually distinctive groups that were working beyond existing, stretch of imagination.  The first group was made up of professional electronic engineers.  They had little or no found initially but gained prominence when they were becoming bolder in their discoveries.  The second group was made up of amateur, who was showing casual interests.  The third group comprised of emerging companies and corporations that were beginning to actually invest in research and development in electronic engineering.  Of course, the government in Europe and Unites States that watched these developments with keen interest and with regulatory intent formed the fourth group.

 

HOW IF ALL BEGAN IN Nigeria:

Africa was almost totally oblivious of the development, if one should look towards the formations of Radio operators worldwide.  In Europe, a company known as the British Broadcasting Company was formed in 1922, while postmaster general licensed it on January 18, 1923 to carry out radio broadcasting.  In 1927, it received the royal charter and changed its name to British Broadcasting Corporation, (BBC).  The fortunes of Radio Nigeria from inception were tied to BBC.  At the earliest stage of these developments, the slave trade was thriving to the detriment of the continent.  The scramble for Africa preoccupied the Europeans when Bismarck convened the Berlin Conference in 1884 – 5.  so, the issues of empire and trade were more paramount than anything else on the continent.  In fact, most of the major landmarks in broadcasting took place when colonial wars were still being fought in Nigeria, leading to the spread of the British sphere of influence from the Lagos colony to the protectorates of Southern and Northern Nigeria.  By the time of the amalgamation of the two protectorates in 1914, for example, radio transmitters were already appearing in the United States of America in whatever crude form they might be.  Radio for instance, is the most important and most powerful media instrument with which the rural areas are familiar because, it can reach all the nooks and crannies of the country instantly unlike the other media.  This is why the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria occupies a very important position not only in Nigeria but also in some African Countries around Nigeria, example:- Ghana, Cameroon, Benin Republic, etc.

Therefore, it is of both academic and practical interest to examine the programme “The President Explains” working with presidential media adviser, according to IROH (2001:5) who introduced the new radio programme aimed at bringing the people closer to the president.  They new current affairs programme was titled “The President Explains”, a monthly 2 – hours – long chat in which the people, via phone-in asked their president questions on any national issue.  The democratic programming content of Radio Nigeria cannot be complete without a mention that the “president explains” is a carefully crafted, issues – oriented network programe, which highlights and discussed current political, economic, social and technological issues.

 

 

 

 

• STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

The aim of this research is to find out at the possible influences of Radio Broadcasting on Ikiriki Community in Enugu South Local Government Area of Enugu State.

Radio as a communication medium is universally accepted by communicators as the best medium, which conquers the barriers of illiteracy, inadequate communication and transputation system and their socio-economic ills which hamper progress and militate against the mass media in under-developed and developing societies.  Radio Communication such as current affairs programme are beamed to an indiscriminate and diversified audience.  It is aimed at both the literate and illiterate, to the city dweller as well as the rural peasant.  As a rural mass medium, radio is a very effective means of getting the rural dwellers informed and educated on things that are vital to their existence as a group.  Radio’s ability to create simultaneous awareness in people is universally recognized.

In democracies, media practitioners are the watchdogs of societies and to function effectively, they should know the needs, aspirations and hopes of the society.

The effects of our unstable polity which emanated from the frequent incursion of the military into the political system, has hitherto made Nigerians cynical about politics generally.

The situation of distrust and suspicion only makes anything political a hard sell and this invariably affects the political awareness of the populace, which will in turn effect their understanding of certain political issues.

What this means is that the ordinary methods of information dissemination such as News – Items, Editorials, Features, Commentary and News Analysis are inadequate.

This is unlike the interactive format of the radio programme the President Explains comes to the rescue through the double barrel approach of interpersonal and instant feedback, which has the advantage of explaining complex policy issues that will enrich the knowledge of listeners.

This research work is aimed at determining the degree of awareness of F.R.C.N’S Current Affairs programme the “PRESIDENT EXPLAINS” has created on the Ikiriki Community.

Radio is therefore, the major source of News and other mass communication messages in the area.

Audience feedback has always created problems for media practitioners and it is the intention of the researcher to determine the impact of the programme on the audience.

 

• THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The aim of this is to determine the effect of the radio, as a medium for creating political awareness by bringing the people or audience closer to the president, through an interactive forum titled “THE PRESIDENT EXPLAINS”, a monthly 2 – hours – long hat in which the people via phone – in, ask their president questions on national issues.

The bold step was a selection of manageable survey population in Ikiriki Community in Enugu-South Local Government Area of Enugu State.  “Campus I was thus selected.

This area was chosen because; it represents adequately, the rural audience in Enugu state.

Though, the community is just about, three kilometers from the Idaw-River Girls Secondary School and five kilometers from the Queens Comprehensive Secondary School, there is a general absence of the two schools influence on the people.  They are mainly traders, labourers, and farmers.  As the inhabitants of the community live in clustered village set up, a list comprising the total “campuses” that make up the entire community was drawn and selected as a sampling frame constructed from there, in view of carrying out a sound research work.

This was also with a view to finding out whether the programme had achieved its aims and objectives.

 

• THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study is to determine the influence of News and Political Programmes beamed consistently, by a radio station for instance, on the people/audience, and how far can the mass media of information be effectively used to influence the public to imbibe new political cultures?  This study will reveal whether the programme “The President Explains” can create the necessary impact on the masses.

It is also hoped that, this finding of research will serve also a stimulant for further investigation by interested professionals.

• RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The need for this research question is to be a guide for the researcher to have constructive questionnaire.

• Is Radio as a communication medium universally accepted by communicators, the best medium, which conquers the barriers of illiteracy?
• Can these programmes actually, achieve their objective if it is well carried out?
• How efficient is Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria in covering both Urban and Rural areas in Nigeria?
• Have you ever listened to any F.R.C.N programme?
• How often do you do so?

 

• RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

H1:   The more a person exposes himself to the programme the “President Explains” the more knowledgeable on National Issues he will become.

H0:   A person’s exposure to the President Explains has no relationship with his level of knowledge on National Issues.

H2:   The more a person exposes himself to the programme, the greater his political awareness.

H0:   A person’s exposure to the programme is not related to his political awareness.

H3:   A person’s literacy level influences his political awareness on National Issues

H0:   A person’s literacy level has no influence on his awareness on National Issues.

H4:   An Interactive program will attract more listeners than any other.

H0:   The interactive nature of programme does not affect its listenership.

 

• CONCEPT IONAL AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS

3. Radio: The conceptional meaning of radio is a wireless receiving set.

Operational meaning:       Sending out information, idea, opinion, etc. through the programme via the airwaves to the audience.

Awareness:      The conceptional meaning of awareness is, conscious, knowing or condition of being aware.

The operational meaning:         Being informed of a particular programme.

Communication:       The conceptional meaning of communication an exchange of information experienced and ideas among people.

Operational Meaning:       It is the process of disseminating information, ideas and attitudes to a relatively large and diversified audience simultaneously.

 

1.8   ASSUMPTIONS:

In undertaking this study, the following assumptions were made.

• That the respondents were exposed to radio programmes.
• That the respondents were all resident of the sample area.
• That the respondents could understand the content of the programme.
• That the respondents political awareness could be influenced by the programme.

 

 

 

1.9   LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

In carrying out a study of this nature, certain constraints were encountered, such as getting the materials or books to put up the literature review of this research.  And also the school reference department doesn’t have enough books to back up the topic under discussion.

Besides, this research work goes pari-passu with my academic programme like quiz, class assignment etc.   So it was quite difficult for the researcher to travel far to collect the necessary material for this study.

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THE EFFECTS OF MEDIA PROGRAMME ON RURAL DEVELOPMENT

(A CASE STUDY OF ESBS, NU OHA PROGRAMME

ABSTRACT

This study is aimed at critically examining the effects mass media on rural development. The work also includes the origin of the programme, literature review, statement of the research problem. The hypothesis and the research methodology of the study, equally included are the data analysis, data interpretation, results, discussion as well as bibliography.

The research problems is “The effectiveness of ESBS (ratio rural Enlightment programme “ONU OHA”

The result of the study shows that the programme “ONU OHA” is very useful considering the listener ship and the effectiveness of the message.

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Background of the study

Statement of research problem

Objectives of the study

Significance of the study

Research questions

Research and null hypothesis

Conceptual and operational definition conceptual definitions

Assumption

Limitation of the study

 

CHAPTER TWO

Review of literature

Sources of literature.

The review

Summary of literature

CHAPTER THREE

Methodology

Research method

Research design

Research sample

Measuring instrument

Data collection

Data analysis

Expected results

 

CHAPTER FOUR

Data analysis and result

Results

Discussion

 

CHAPTER FIVE

 

Summary and recommendation

Summary

Recommendation

Bibliography

 

CHAPTER ONE

 

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

          For government to articulate sound policies without reaching the target is a tragedy as irredeemable as the ideal man who swallows all his thoughts.

In this regards, successive governments in Enugu state through Enugu State Broadcasting Service (ESBS) continually grape through multitude programme, through endless permutations of strategies to fathon human predicaments and redeem man from such chaos and disorder. The process spawns what planners call “Programmes” project and target in government administrative parlance, as the linkage factor between policy articulation and its implementation the crisis point in this beautifully linkage is the target were as objectives manifesting on the ground, or as end users of the policy objectives.

The ability to convince and persuade has also been institutionalized in some of the media programme such as “ONU OHA” ab ESBS audio programme. The programme “ONU OHA” which is composed to enlighten the rural dwellers on what is going on in the government of Enugu State. Is a production in Igbo unit of the ESBS radi Enugu. The programme, which lasts for 15 minutes is started this year and aired once in a week (on Sunday).

It establishes a direct contact with the  listening audience of Enugu State and makes them to know what is happening in the government and then air their own views/ contribution through planning the programmes seeks to create awareness on the people of Enugu state about the important of rural development through collective and individuals contribution of ideas of the rural people.

On the effectiveness of this programme, the producer, Chukwuma Ogbonna told us that the programme has been achieving its objectives. This according to the producer is ascertained through the acknowledgement letters gotten from the rural dwellers. According to Dr. Frank Ogboaja. One would not loose sight of the low literacy rate in our society, a factor capable of impeding the understanding and the interpretation of mass media messages.

Thus in trying to bridge the knowledge gap in the communication of development issues. Nigeria mass media have resorted to increasing use for this vernacular language. The use of ESBS Radio for this programe has become necessary considering the mass local audience covered and the fact that out of the whole mass media of communication available, radio is the most accessible to the people of Enugu state especially Nsukka Zone.

Being an Igbo programme, it will go a long way to help the people in comprehending the purpose and need for rural dwellers participation in formulating the policies of Enugu state government

According to Lazardfeld and co:

“Many are alarmed by the ubiquity and the potential power of mass media especially radio, comprise a powerful instrument which may be used for good.”

In this research therefore, we would critically look for and possibly find out whether ESBS rural development programme ONU OHA” actually has any impact on the people of Nsukka zone, nay the society.

 

STATEMENRT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

          The research problem, which we want to find out is the effectiveness of ESBS (radio) enlightment or development programme “ONU OHA” on development effort of people in rural areas. This research topic is deemed a problem because it is argued variously to stimulate rural dwellers to embark on rural development by sending their ideas to the government of Enugu state.

 

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of this study is to critically examine or analyze the effects of mass media programmes on rural developments, we are primarily attractive to this problem because of the much emphasis being laid both by government, groups and individuals in enlightening the rural dwellers on what is going on in the government for the purpose of government helping in their development.

Series of effort will be made to find out from the selected subjects the extent of attention they pay to various media house. The things will accomplished by going to the subjects and ascertaining on how far they listen to radio and television broadcasting in Enugu broadcasting service (ESBS). No defined agreement among communication experts on the reaction towards the mass media message. If this is the case, with what degree of certainty  can it be said that the attitude of the target audience will considerably come as a result of media message influence.

Bernad Berelson, for instance believes that “some kinds of communication and various people under certain conditions have some kinds of effects”

Besides, Curran et al said that mass communication does not ordinarily serves as a necessary and sufficient cause audience effects but  rather functions through a connections and series of mediating factors:

Invariably, what their postulations indicated is that the influence of the media message is fundamentally relative. We hope that the findings of this research would be of immense help to future researcher in related areas. The result of this study would go a long ay in convincing people that the mass media are capable of affecting an appreciable change on people, it would also be of great advantage to the government to access the effectiveness of the programme realizing its objectives on rural development.

Moreover, the result of this research would be of enormous value to the media authority to improve on the programme or in sustaining iy if not dropping it entirely.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The information for this study will be obtained from the subjects in the rural areas which will complete copies of questionnaires in addition to being interviewed. The subjects will be systematically and randomly selected from rural populace.

Since the inception of ESBS radio programme “ONU OHA” there has not been any in-depth study to ascertain its effectiveness in terms of achieving objectives for which it was meant. Thus this study will go a long way insetting the pace for any researcher who would wish to carry out a study in area of radio and its usefulness in the process of enlightment.

 

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. Do people in Nsukka zone find ESBS Igbo programme “ONU OHA” useful for expressing their views to the government.
2. Do the listeners in Nsukka zone find the time of the broadcast of “ONUOHA” suitable
3. Do the people in Nsukka zone often listen to ESBS (radio) programme “ONU OHA”.
4. Do the people in Nzukka zone listen to the programme because they are being rewarded by the government?

 

RESEARCH AND NULL HYPOTHESIS

1. Rural dwellers in Nssukka zone find ESBS (radio) programme “ONU OHA” useful in seeking development from the government.

H0.    Rural dwellers in Nsukka zone do not find ESBS (radio) programme “ONU OHA” useful in seeking development from the government.

H2.     Listeners in Nsukka zone find the time of broadcast of “ONU OHA” suitable.

H0.   Listeners in Nsukka zone do not find the time of broadcast of “ONU OHA” suitable.

H3.  Listeners in Nsukka zone find the programme enjoyable.

H0.  Listeners in Nsukka zone do not find the programme enjoyable.

 

CONCEPTUAL AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITION CONCEPTUAL DEFINITIONS

LISTENERSHIP:- The act of paying attention to a given broadcast programme.

USEFULNESS:- Means ability to help or produce good results.

BROADCAST TIME:- It is the time or hour of the day during which an event occurs.

SUITABILITY:- Right for the purpose or occasion.

EFFECT:- Result or outcome

PROGRAMME:- List of items or results.

RURAL DEVELOPMENT:- Any kind of effort by people or interested groups to bring change in the countryside.

 

OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS

LISTENERSHIP:- The number of times that inhabitants of Nsukka zone pay attention to ESBS (radio) programme “ONA OHA”.

USEFULNESS:- Total score or desirability or importance attached to ESBS (radio) programme “ONU OHA”.

BROADCAST TIME:- Total number of times that the ESBS programme is on air.

SUITABILITY:- Mean scope of responses to the airtime.

EFFECT:- The average score of programme influence on people

PROGRAMME:  The ESBS development programme “ONU OHA”

RURAL DEVELOPMENT: The total score of actions from the government to the rural dwellers. 

 

ASSUMPTION

As usual with a study of this nature, we hereby make the following assumptions:

With advancement of technology in the field of mass communication, there tends to be growing awareness among societies, therefore there is a general belief that people perceptions and understanding of media message are considerably high. It was also an assumption that people attach importance to message from the media especially radio. So, transmission of enlightment programmes through radio on a regular basis has chances of making impact on its audience.

It is also assumed that most rural dwellers in Enugu state speak and hear Igbo language in which the ESBS radio programme “ONU OHA” is produced.

 

LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The major limitation to this study was with respect to the population and sample size the study is restricted in Nsukka senatorial zone. Since there are typical dominantly most areas in Enugu state are rural in nature, the result of this study would be sufficient.

Another limitation of the study is the time range of the research which is very short for us to carry out the research work and finally financial problem.