PREVALENCE OF MALARIA PARASITE AMONG PREGNANT WOMEN

(A CASE STUDY OF NIGER FOUNDATION HOSPITAL ENUGU)

 

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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 4
1.3 Objectives of the Study 4
1.4 Research Question 5
1.5 Significance of the Study 5
1.6 Delimitation of the Study 6
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Causes of Malaria 8
2.2 Pathology and Pathogenesis of Malaria in Pregnancy
11
2.2.1 Planted and Immune Invasion 13
2.2.2 Low Birth highlight (LBH) 16
2.2.3 Preterm Delivery and Intrauterine Growth Retardation (IUGR). 17
2.3 Material Nutrition and Malaria in Pregnancy 18
2.4 Epidemiology of Malaria in Pregnancy 19
2.5 Control of Malaria 22
2.6 Intermittent Preventive Treatment (IPT) 26

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS & METHODS 28
3.1 Materials (See Appendix)
3.2 Study Area 28
3.3 Collection of Blood and Preparation of Blood Films
29
3.3.1 Examination of Blood Films 30

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULT 31

CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Discussion 35
5.1.1 Parity Prevalence 37
5.1.2 Age Prevalence 38
5.2 Conclusion 39
Recommendation 40
References 42
Appendices 48
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Prevalence of Malaria Parasite Among Pregnant Women Based on Gravidity 31

Table 2: Prevalence of Malaria Parasite in Pregnant Women Based on Trimester 33

Table 3: Prevalence of Malaria Parasite in Pregnant Women Based on Age 34

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1: Live Cycle of Plasmodium Parasite 6B 9

Fig. 2: Bar Chart of Relationship Between Percentage of Pregnant Women Infected with Malaria Parasite and umber of pregnant Women Sampled by Gravidity 32

Fig. 3: Bar Chart of Relationship Between Malaria Infection and Age of Pregnant Women ……………… 34

 

ABSTRACT
A survey designed to determine the true prevalence of malaria among pregnant women in Enugu metropolis, a case study of Niger Foundation Hospital Enugu Southeastern Nigeria. A total of 200 pregnant women were recruited into this study. Blood smears stained with Giemsa (1/10 dilution) were used for malaria diagnosis by light microscopy. Malaria infection during pregnancy present mostly as asymptomatic infection. A total of 35.0% were positive while 65.0% were negative. The prevalence of malaria on the parity levels showed that primigravidae had the prevalence rate of 41.9% while multigravidae had the prevalence rate of 27.8%.The age prevalence of malaria showed that 19 – 23 years had the highest prevalence rate of 46.2%. However, all these were statistically significant.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Malaria is a disease that is caused by a parasite, a living thing that lives and feeds on another living thing without helping its host in any way. The parasites that cause human malaria are tiny, single-celled creatures known as protozoa of the genus plasmodium. Four species are involves Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium malariae, and Plasmodium ovale, of these, Plasmodium falciparum is the most commosn and the deadliest and the most virulent in Africa. Malaria parasites are spread to humans by the bite of an infection vector, the female anopheles mosquito. Such mosquitoes are found in almost all countries in the tropics (region around the equator) and subtropics (region just beyond the tropics) (Izenberg et al 2008).
Malaria disease is known to affect a high population of people.

Women particularly pregnant women and children, aged 0.5 are among the worst hit by the mosquito borne ailment. Latest WHO estimated that there are 300 – 500 million cases of clinical malaria per year with 1.4 – 2.6 million deaths mainly among African children. Most of these deaths are attributed to infection with P. falciperium and occur among children and pregnant women in the developing world (WHO 2004).

Each year, 25 million African women become pregnant in malaria endemic area. Malaria infection during pregnancy is a major public health problem in tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world. It increase the risk of low birth weight (<2500mg), infant mortality and morbidity during the first year of the life by inducing intra-uterine growth retardation, pre-maturity and infant anemiae (Nosten et al 1994).

Malaria is known to impair growth in children, it causes weakness, mental apathy, abortion in pregnant women as well as maternal anemia. It slows down economic development (Adam, 2005), the presentation of malaria during pregnancy varies according to the pre-existing immunity of the malaria. Women living in low malaria transmission have little immunity to malaria which causes severe syndrome, such as cerebral malaria and preliminary edema. It is generally assumed that due to the acquisition of significant levels of anti-malaria immunity in areas of stable transmission, parasitemia pregnant women are rarely symptomatic and that severe disease or death from malaria is extremely unusual (Shulman, 2003).
In order to decrease the increase of morbidity and mortality particularly in pregnant women, control measures depends upon elimination of mosquito breeding places, personal protection against mosquitoes, suppressive drugs for exposed persons, and adequate treatment of cases and carriers (Jawetz et al 2004).

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Malaria is endemic in Nigeria and pregnancy increases the susceptibility of this infection. One of the most common complications of malaria in pregnancy is anemia which also has a negative impact on the outcome of..

 

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ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF SOME METHODS ADOPTED IN YOUGHOURT PRODUCTION

 

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
1.2 Aim and Objectives of the Study
1.3 Significance of the Study
1.4 Statements of the Problem
1.5 Limitations of the Study
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Properties and Characteristics of Yoghurt
2.2 The evolution of Yoghurt
2.3 Process and manufacture of Yoghurt

CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Materials and Methods for Yoghurt Production

CHAPTER FOUR
Conclusion and Recommendation
References

 

CHAPTER ONE

Yoghurt is a fermented milk product, produced with a yoghurt starter culture which is a mixed culture of streptococcus thermophilus and lactobacillus bulgaricus in a 1:1 ratio. S thermophilus enjoys a faster growth than L hulgricus. It adds flavours and aroma to the yoghurt, though both organisms in association produces lactic acid but acetaldehyde and dimethyl propanol, the chief favour component of yoghurt is produced by L bulgaricus.

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Every producer be it private or public more especially profit making has objectives in mind to achieve, some of which are to sue a process/method that is convenient and hygienic for himself, workers and to the final consumer of his product (yoghurt).
Lack of research has landed many producers of yoghurt into confusion on the method and process of producing yoghurt, thereby producing a substandard yoghurt which may not meet the taste of the consumers like “mouth feel and appearance”. They need to know the various methods and different materials that are used in yoghurt which will improve its general quality.
Moreover whichever method that is chosen must be economical in all aspect, so that the producers will have some profit after calculating the cost and the products retail price will not be too much for the average consumer to afford.

1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Many producers of yoghurt are confused on the methods and process of producing yoghurt, consequently, producing substandard yoghurt which may not meet..

 

 

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ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF HONEY ON Staphylococcus aureusEscherichia coli and Streptococcus pyogen

ISOLATED FROM WOUND

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CHAPTER ONE
1.0	Introduction	1
1.1	Aims and objectives	3
CHAPTER TWO
2.0	Literature review	5

 

 

 

 

 

 

v

 

2.1	Wound infection		8
2.2 Definition of honey			9
2.3		Local test for honey	13
2.4		Classification of honey	14
2.5		Preservation of honey	16
2.6		Properties and active ingredient of honey	17
2.7		Mode of action of some antibacterial substance
		present in honey	20
2.8		Clinical conditions for treatment with honey	22
2.9		Honey as an antimicrobial agent	24
2.10		Practical consideration for the clinical use of honey	27
2.11		Adverse reaction of honey	28
2.12 Research on honey			29

 

 

 

 

 

 

vi

 

CHAPTER THREE
3.1	Source of Sample	32
3.2	Sources of honey	32
3.3	Identification of organisms	32
3.4	Gram Staining	33
3.5	Indole test	34
3.6	Catalase test	34
3.7	Coagulase test	35
3.8	Antibacterial sensitivity test	35
	CHAPTER FOUR
4.1	Result	37

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

vii

 

CHAPTER FIVE
5.1	Discussion	40
5.2	Conclusion	42
5.3	Recommendation	43
REFERENCE		44
Appendix 1		51
Appendix 2		54

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

viii

 

	LIST OF TABLES
Table 1	– Composition of honey	13
Table 2	– Result of Biochemical tests	25
Table 3	– Inhibition of honey from Enugu North (Nsukka)	26
Table 4	– Inhibition of honey from Enugu South (Ugwuaji)	26

 

 

 

 

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ABSTRACT

 

Antibacterial activity of honey obtained from two different locations in Delta State (Abraka & Obiaru) Nigeria on Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Streptococcus pyogens isolated from wound was studied. Agar well diffusion method was used to determine the antibacterial activity of the honey on the test microorganisms. The result revealed that the two honey samples have heavy antibacterial activities against the test organisms and zones of inhibition were obtained showing high antibacterial activity. The antibacterial activity increased with increase in the concentrations and honey from Abraka produced a high antibacterial activity (clearer zone) on staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli at all concentration and moderately for streptococcus pyogens. The use of honey as a therapeutic substance has been rediscovered by the medical profession on more recent times, and it is gaining acceptance as an antibacterial agent for the treatment of ulcers and bed sores, and other infections resulting from burns and wounds.

 

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

Infections and other health related problems have been of great concern to human beings and chemotherapy is the main approach in the treatment of such conditions. Investigation into the microbial flora of wound began in the late 19^th century and since then; improvements in techniques have facilitated the recovery, identification and enumeration of a wide variety of microbial species. Most wounds support relatively stable polymicrobial communities (Bowkler, et.al; 2001) often without signs of clinical infection (Hansson,et al; 1993).

 

However, potential pathogens may be present and the delicate balance between colonized wound and an infected wound depends on the interplay of complex host and microbial influences (Emmerson, 1998). The development of wound infection has deleterious effect on

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

patients by causing increased pain, discomfort, inconveniences and can lead to life threatening conditions or even death.

 

Major challenges encountered with antibiotics in clinical use are resistance to antibiotics which leads eventually to failure of the treatment (Blair 2004). Infectious diseases are known to be treated with herbal remedies throughout the history of mankind; even today, natural substances continue to play a major role in primary health care as therapeutic remedies in many developing countries (Jonathan, et.al; 2007). Over the years, there have been reports of the production of more potent antibiotics e.g. third and fourth generation of cephalosporin by pharmaceutical companies which are not readily available and expensive. Problems of various antibiotics include low efficacy, side effect which has lead investigations into natural and potent antibacterial seeming to be the right step to take. The invasion of pathogenic organism is on the rise as a result, effects are been made to develop antibacterial agent from natural sources for better

 

 

therapeutic effect (Gills, 1992). The therapies have drawn the interest of both public and medicinal communities. Current research has been focused on herbal and aromatherapy product. However, a number of their product such as honey has shown therapeutic promise.

 

The presence in honey of various inhibins as described by (Doid and Dzaio, 1937) has been reported by several investigators. Honey was used to treat infected wound as long as 2000 years ago before bacterial were discovered to be the cause of infection in c.50 AD,

 

Dioscorides described honeyandhollow as be ulcers” 1959)(Gunther,.Morerecently,honey has been reported to

 

have an inhibitory effect to around 60 species of bacterial including aerobes and anaerobes, Gram positive and Gram negative (Molan, 1992). The current prevalence of the therapeutic use of ancient remedies, include honey committee on science and technology.

 

1.1 Aims and objectives.

 

 

1. To determine antibacterial potential of honey.

 

 

 

 

 

3

 

2. To investigate the mechanism of antibacterial action of honey

 

To determine…

 

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COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MICROBIAL LOAD OF THE ENUGU MAIN WATER

PRODUCTION AND WATER AVAILABLE TO IMT CAMPUS II HOSTEL

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ABSTRACT

Samples of water from the different hostels in campus II and other source of water production namely Ajali-owa water, from bore hole 9th mile and spring water from GRA water board were water collecterd and analysed using total plate count and multiple tube fermentaton techniques coliform. The results shows no coliforms in production water from Ajali-owa and in GRA spring water reservaiour and no coliform in 9th mile bore hole water, 14 organism and 149 cfu/ml plate counts were obtained from tap water in IMT campus II hostel 7 coliform and Tocful / ml plate count from well water and 28 coliform and 280 cfu/ml plate count from spillage waste water. These results obtained show that tap water consumed in IMT campus II did not meet with NAFDAC and WHO standards. Preventive measures such as proper treatment of these water should be encourage and all pipes in campus II should be checked for leakages

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENT

1.0 CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
1.1 Aims / objectives of the study
1.2 Statement of problems
1.3 Hypothesis
1.4 Scope of limitation

CHAPTER TWO
Literature review
2.1 The major group of biological Pollutions of water
2.2 Source of water supply
2.3 Source of water pollution
2.4 Treatment of water sample
2.5 International standard for drinking water
2.6 Diseases from water

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials & methods
3.0 Materials
3.1 Media preparation
3.2 Collection of samples
3.3 Collection of samples
3.4 Methods of water analysis
3.5 Determination of PH
3.5.1 Determination of bacteria of the coliform
3.5.2 Culture techniques
3.5.3 Plate count technique
3.5.4 Presumption coliform (multiple tube fermebtation
3.5.4 Confirmatory test
3.5.5 Completed test
3.5.6 Test for indole
3.5.7 Methyl red test
3.5.8 Sugar test
3.5.9 Oxidase test
3.5.10 Catakase test
3.5.11 The slide cougulase test
3.5.12 Gram stain techniques
3.5.13 Detection of faecal stredtococci
3.5.14 Detection of escherichi coli test
3.5.15 Organism suspected after gram staining

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
CHAPTER FIVE
Discussion

CHAPTER SIX
6.1 Conclusion
6.2 Recommendation
References
Appendix

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Water is a liquid mineral. It consist of two atoms of hydrogen combined with one atom of oxygen. Water is a tasteless, odourless and colourless mobile liquid except in large volume where it appears blue. It has a melting point of OoC (320f) and a boiling point of 1000C (2120f). water is a basic necessity of life, in the absence higher animals survive only but a few hours or days. It has several uses such as washing cooking, food processing ,swimming, and among others. Out of these uses, drinking of water seems to be the most sensitive as it could have a direct deleterious impact on health of human beings.
Therefore, drinking water should be potable free diseases, or toxic substance (Beren 1991) .

Water is portable when it is colourless. Odourless, or tasteless and also free from poisonous, corroding, staining substances as well as disease casuiong oirganisms (Cruich 1972). The problem of providing safe and adequate water is as old as life on earth. Water can be made unifit or unsafe for drinking it contamination occurs either by nature or activities of human beings.

Perhaps the greatest danger associated with drinking water is contamination by human excrement (Forest 1979). In most cases, the pollution/contamination is hardly severe and is not particularly detrimental to health.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MICROBIAL LOAD OF THE ENUGU MAIN WATER

Thus a few substances and microbes that are health hazard do occur in water, and can cause illness or even death. From microbiological point of view, the pathogens most frequently transmitted through water supply ranges from ultrasmall virus to the microspic bacteria and relatively large cysts entemoeba instolytica.

These organism cense infectrons of intestinal trach, when consumed censing amebic dysentery, and Gardia lamblia is a protozoa responsible for Giadiasis. Defective plumbing for example was the cause of out break during the world fair in Chicago 1933 (Garelick 1987) water borne disease cause acute diarrhoe, often last 2-3 months.

The most common water borne disease can be by bacteria includes typhoid fever, paratyphoid. Asiatic cholera and bacteria dysentery.

Other disease that may be transmitted by water include brucellosis, shige /losis, these disease are consuming. Untreated water (Hetolett 1921) various countries of the world and the world Health organisation (WHO) has set up standards for water quality against which the level of pollution can be assessed. The world Health organization (WHO) National Agency for food and Drug Administration control (NAFDAC), standard for potable water include the following, that in 100ml of water coliform bacteria should be absent, total plate count of bacteria growth should be 100 CFU/ML of water. Hence the sanitary Quality of water should not be over looked since contaminated water can cause health hazards when consumed.
According to guideline for drinking water quality of WHO (1998)…

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MICROBIAL LOAD OF THE ENUGU MAIN WATER

 

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ISOLATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF MICROORGANISMS FROM STORED PAP (OGI)

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ABSTRACT
The microbial changes which took place during the steeping and storage of pan (ogi) was studied. The steeped water had an initial PH of 6.8 which latter reduced to 4.9 at the end of steeping. The bacterial number for the steeped water ranged from 4.7×104 to 3.2 x 107 cfu/ml while the fungal number ranged from 1.5 x103 to 5.7 x 106 cfu/ml. In the stored pap, pap I had higher count which range from 7.2×104 to 6.0×107 cfu/g while 6.0×107 to 1.6×1011. The fungal count for pap I and II ranged from 8.2 x 105 to 2.5×1012 and 8.2×106 to 3.6×1010 respectively. The bacteria isolated from stee pingwere Lactabacillus species Bacillus specie, Corynebacterium, streptococcus specie and clostridium species. The fungi were Aspergillus species fusrarium specie, pencillium specie sachanomyces specie and candida specie. The bacteria spp isolated from stored pap were lactobacillus species, streptococcus specie Eubacterium specie, Pseudomonas specie, Baccillus specie, streptococcus specie, Lactobacillus specie, Leucomostoc specie for pap I and II respectively. The fungi isolated were Aspergillus specie, Pensillum specie, fusarium specie, sacharomyces specie, candida specie, Debaryomyces specie for pap I and II respectively. The pap stored without changing water developed an off flavour after 48 hours and is not fit for consumption. On the other hand, the pap stored while changing water is fit and better for consumption.
LIST OF TABLES
Table I: The percentage chemical composition
of maize grain 9

Table 2: changes in PH value during the steeping of
maize for pop production 24

Table 3: Bacterial count of steeped water during the
steeping of maize for pap production 25

Table 4: Fungal counts of steeped water during the
steeping of maize for pap production 26

Table 5: Bacterial count for pap samples I and II during
storage at room temperature 26

Table 6: Fungal count for pap samples I and II during
storage at room temperature 27
Table 7: Predominant bacteria isolated from steeped water 29

Table 8: Fungi isolated from steeped water 30

Table 9: Predominant bacteria isolated from stored pap I 34

Table 10: Predominant bacteria isolated from pap II 35

Table 11: Fungal isolated from samples Pap I 36

Table 12: Fungal isolated from sample Pap II 36

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Structure of maize grain——————————

Figure 2: Steps in preparation of pap (Oge)——————-

Figure 3: Changes in PH value during the steeping of maize
for pap production
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Statement of problem
1.3 Aim and objectives of the study
1.4 Hypothesis
1.5 Justification of the study
1.6 Significance of study
1.7 Limitation of the study

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE
2.1 Origin of maize pad
2.2 Structure of maize grain
2.3 Chemical composition of maize grain
2.4 Uses of maize pap
2.5 Chemical changes in stored pap (ogi)
2.6 Nutrition changes in stored pap
2.7 Microorganisms associated with stored pap

CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHOD
3.1 Collection of sample
3.2 Materials and equipments used
3.3 Media and reagents used
3.4 Preparation of pap (ogi)
3.5 Quantitative analysis of microorganisms
3.5.1 Serial dilution
3.5.2 Culturing technique
3.6 Isolation of bactria
3.7 Characterization of isolate
3.8 Biochemical test for identification of microorganisms
3.9 Identification of fungi
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Recommendation
References
Appendix

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Cereals have been known to man from the earliest times porridge prepared from cereals are eaten in different parts o the world, especially in developing countries where they may present the basic diet. This porridge could be baked to enhance the taste, quality and improve digestibility (Oke 1967, Adeniyi and Potter 1978, Uno and field 1981).

Corn (zea mays) is one of cereals which is an important raw material in human diet.

In Nigeria, maize is grown mainly in the southern part of Nigeria while sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and millet (perinisetum typhoideum) are grown in the northern part of the country. A fermented cereal product is known as paplogi). Corn is processed into traditional food such as paplogi) Umo and fields 1981).

Pap is a fermented non-alcoholic starchy food and is a major staple food widely consumed in west Africa. It is a sour fine past beverage which when cooked produces a thin semi solid porridge. Pap (Ogi) porridge has a smooth texture and a sour taste resembling that of yoghurt,.

In Nigeria, some states such as Anambra, Imo, Enugu and Abia refer to it as Akamu but Ogi is a Yoruba name but most state of Nigeria, it refers to maize pap. On the other hand, sorghum pap is known as Ogi baba while millet pap is known as Ogi gero in Yoruba (Banigi 1977, Onyekwere and Akinrele 1977).

Pap logi) can be consumed with variety of other product including with bread, steamed been cake (moi-moi), fried bean cake (Akara), fried yam and plantain etc. it is used as a main meal for adult and sick patients and it is suitable for breakfast, lunch and dinner.

Pap is widely used as the first native food given to babies at wearing to supplement breast milk and is a major breakfast cereal for pre-school children and adults. It is consumed as a main meal for convalescing patients because it can easily be digested. As a wearing food, it is utilized mainly by low income earners category, it is estimated that about 25 million or more adults eat it about 4-5 days weakly (Banigo 1972). Milk and sugar may be added to improved the taske and nutritional quality. Pap is cooked and turned into a stiff gel called Agidi which is similar to kenkey, a fermented shanian product (Muller 1988, withby 1968). Some Yoruba indigens beliwved that pap is capable of stimulating the production of breast milk in Nursing mother (Bassir 1962). However, there has been no qualitative evidence of support of this belief.
In spite of it’s important in the Nigeria diet, pap manufacture is essential a home based industry. There are at present no large scale factory operation for the production of pap. The manufacture is carried out on a small scale by some house wives as a commercial venture in many parts of the country. The cleaned grain free of dirt and impurities steeped in eastern ware, plastic or enamel pot for 1-3 days at room temperature, this is followed by wet milling and sieving. Twenty-four (24) hours of sleeping leads to a greater depletion of the fermentable carbohydrate. After sieving, the coarse material obtained is wash with water to separate more of the starch. The filtered slurry is allowed to sediment and undergo further fermentation for 1-2 days at room temperature. The coarse matter which is separated is used ad animal feed while the sediment (Pap) is boiled to obtain.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Microorganisms are involved in the processing of pap especially during fermentation and equally during storage. Few organisms are found in the pap, if it is properly…

 

 

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