RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGE, FEEDING AND ANAEMIA IN PREGNANCY

(A CASE STUDY OF PREGNANT WOMEN ATTENDING ANTENATAL CLINIC AT UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA TEACHING HOSPITAL (UNTH) ENUGU)

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ABSTRACT

 

The study on anaemia in pregnancy was aimed at determining Packed Cell Volume (PCV) Haemoglobin (HB) level and Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR) of pregnant women as well as the severity, significance of maternal age, educational level, occupation and gestational age to the occurrence of anaemia in pregnancy managed, diagnosed and admitted at the University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital (UNTH) Enugu. The result showed that most of the patient had moderate to severe anaemia and that the cases were commonest in the age range 25 – 29 years. Most of the patients were housewives and low level civil servants who lived in middle and lower class residential areas ad who had no formal education. It was discovered that he normal values for Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR) tests was male = 0 – 5 mm/hr, female = 0 – 7mm/hr, for Packed Cell Volume (PCV) test is male 35 – 45 ml, female 32 – 35ml while normal value for Haemoglobin (Hb) is 11.5g/dl.

Anaemia in pregnancy was seen to occur most commonly in the third trimester. It occurred all through the year, but mostly in the wet season and had the greatest positive association with malaria and nutritional deficiency. Anaemia in pregnancy was seen not to be rampant in our today’s society due to the small number tested positive in the practical work conducted at University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital (UNTH) Enugu. Anaemia in pregnancy was also seen not to have any effect on birth weight of babies.

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction                                                                                 1

1.1     Aims and Objectives                                                          4

1.2     The Limitation of Study                                                     5

1.3     Hypothesis                                                                         6

1.4     Justification                                                                       6

CHAPTER TWO

Literature Review                                                                        7

CHAPTER THREE

Materials/Method                                                                         18

1.1     Collection of Samples                                                        18

1.2     Determination of Packed Cell Volume (PCV)                    19

1.3     Determination of Haemoglobin (Hb)                                 19

1.4     Determination of Erythrocute Sedimentation

Rate (ESR) By Westergren’s Method.                               20

1.5     Method of Data Collection                                                 20

1.6     Method of Data Analysis                                                   22

CHAPTER FOUR

Results                                                                                         23

CHAPTER FIVE

Discussion                                                                                   32

CHAPTER SIX

5.1     Conclusion                                                                        36

5.2     Recommendation                                                               37

5.3     Action by the Government                                                38

5.4     Action by the Community                                                 38

5.5     Action by the Health Workers                                           39

5.6     Action by the Individuals                                                  39

Reference                                                                           41

Appendix                                                                           43

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1:    Distribution of pregnant women by age

TABLE 2:    Mean age distribution of patients

TABLE 3:    Distribution of patients according to their

Occupation

 

TABLE 4:    Distribution of patients according to their educational level

 

TABLE 5:    Distribution of patiens according to severity

 

TABLE 6:    Distribution of patients according to gestational age

 

TABLE 7.    Distribution of cases according to associates conditions

 

TABLE 8:    Relationship of incidence of aneamia in pregnancy to outcome of patients

 

TABLE 9:    Relationship of incidence of Anaemia in pregnancy to Birth weight of Baby

 

TABLE 10:  Result of PCV, Hb and ESR tests at University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital (UNTH) Enugu.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1:            Histogram showing age distribution of pregnant women

 

FIGURE 2:            Bar chart-showing distribution of patients according to their occupation

 

FIGURE 3:            Pie chart-showing distribution of patients according to their occupation

 

FIGURE 4:            Bar chart showing distribution of patients according to their literacy level

 

FIGURE 5.            Pie chart showing distribution of patients according to severity

 

FIGURE 6:            Bar chart showing distribution of cases according to associated condition

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

 

INTRODUCTION

          Anaemia is a common disorder in pregnancy. The definition gives by World Health Organization (WHO) shows that haemoglobin level of less than 11.5g%. Signifies anaemia, but in Nigeria it is regarded as the haemoglobin of less than 10.5g% or Packed Cell Volume (PCV) of less than 23%. Between January 1955 and April 1957, anaemia was directly instrumental for over 20% of all the maternal deaths from antepartum and postpartum hemorrhage and puerperal sepsis. The type of anaemia encountered in the pregnant women are identical with those encountered in the non-pregnant. However, there is no doubt that the increased nutritional and metabolic demands of pregnancy and the fact that for many women, it is the first time they come under detailed medical scruting, has the effect both of increasing the incidence and altering the pattern. Actiology determines the type of anaemia that is encountered. It can result from one or more of the following causes:-

1. Hydraemia (Physiological anaemia)
2. Anaemia due to inadequate production of red cells.

Different causes includes:-

1. Nutritional or deficiency anaemia: This is caused by deficiency of essential factors for haemopioesis, iron, vitamin B₁₂, folic acid and protein. Deficiency can be due to inadequate intake, poor absorption from gastro intestinal tract or increased demand during pregnancy. Physiological states may contribute to iron deficiency. There is greater than usual demand for iron in growing babies, growing adolescents, menstruation and pregnancy where iron is needed for the increased maternal red cell mass as well as for the foetus.
2. Hypoplasia and Aplasia of the bone marrow :

          These are frequently induced by drugs and radiation. Decreased production are also caused by the invasion of the bone marrow as found in Leukemia, Secondary Carcinoma and Fibrosis.

3. Decreased Production of erythroprotein as found in renal diseases.

Anaemia due to excessive destruction of red cell can be subdivided into:-

1. Heamolytic anaemia which occurs when red cell losses exceeds the capacity of the marrow to compensate. Other cause of Haemolytic anaemia includes:
2. Congenital sphetocytosis
3. Glucose – 6 – phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency

• Infection with malaria and Clostridium

The above causes of haemolytic anaemia could be classified either as inherited or acquired, and as intrinsic (due to abnormalities of the red cell itself) or extrinsic due to external insults).

2. Haemoglobinopathies: The term haemoglobinopathies describes inherited abnormalities of one or more of the four globulin chains in haemoglobin. Example of Haemoglobinopathies. Includes:-
3. Sickle cell disease (genotype Hbs)
4. Sickle cell Hbc disease

• Thalassaemia ie disorder where the rate of synthesis is slow, but the structure of the chains produced is normal.

Anaemia from blood loss can be due to

1. Hookworm infestation (Ancylostomiasis)
2. Bilhierziasis

• Haemorrhoids

1. Peptic ulcer
2. Threatened abortion.

During pregnancy, the circulating blood volume markedly increases. It begins to do so in the first trimester, is more marked in the second, reaches its maximum about 3^rd and 4^th trimester.

Some women start pregnancy with deficiency iron stores. As pregnancy advances, the demands of the foetus and the mother may exceeds the supply of iron from her stores and from her diet and therefore, the mother suffers from iron deficiency. Therefore, grand multiparty and multiple pregnancies are at high risk. The usual daily dietary intake of iron by a non-pregnant woman is about 10mg of which 10% is. This balances the loss in urine and faeceo, from desquamation of skin (amounting of about 0.5mg daily) and from menstrual loss. It is advisable that a pregnant woman supplement here dietary intake of iron.

 

1.1     AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

               This project work is aimed at the following to determine the haemoglobin level (Hb), Packed Cell Volume (PCV) and Erythrocyte…

 

 

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DETERMINATION OF HYDROGEN CYANIDE IN CASSAVA

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ABSTRACT

Cassava is one of the major dietary stable for a large percentage of the population of tropical Africa and other parts of the world, and is likely to remain the biggest single source of calories for the poor in the continents. An important drawback to increase cassava use for human and animal feeding is its cyanogenic potential, or ability to generate hydrogen cyanide, a well – known poison with potential acute and chronic metabolic effects in human.

This project work deals with the determination of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) concentration in cassava tubers (using the bitter varieties) collected from Institute of Management and Technology (IMT) premises with respect to four days fermentation period using Atomic Absorption spectrophotometer (AAS).

The result shows that the concentration of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) decreases with increase in fermentation period, and based on the safe limit given by the us food and drug administration (FDA) and others, a safe fermentation period for cassava before processing it to produce garri is deduced.

 

TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction 1
1.1 Hydrogen Cyanide 2
1.2 Aims and Objectives of The Study 4
1.3 Statement of Problem 5
1.4 Hypothesis 5
1.5 Scope of Study 5
CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review 7
2.1 Chemical and Physical Properties of HCN 9
2.2 Entry of Hydrogen Cyanide into the Body and
Its Exit from the Body 11
2.3 Effect of Cyanide on Health 14
2.4 Symptoms of Cyanide Poisoning and Treatment 18
2.5 Safety Factor and Procedures for Cyanide Identification 21
2.6 Cassava and Cyanide Concentration 25
2.7 Factors Affecting Cyanide Toxicity 27
2.8 Sources and Control Methods for Hydrogen Cyanide 28
2.9 Uses of Cassava 32

CHAPTER THREE
Methodology 34
3.1 Materials for the Analysis 34
3.2 Method of Analysis 35
3.3 Personal Hygiene Procedures 36
3.4 Sample Collection and Fermentation Process 37
3.5 Sample Fermentation 38
3.6 Sample Preservation and Storage 39
3.7 Acid Distillation 40
3.8 Distillation Procedure 40
3.9 Calibration Standard Preparation 42

CHAPTER FOUR
Result and Discussion 43
4.1 Concentration 44
4.2 Safe Fermentation Period 46
4.3 Cassava Processing Technique 46
4.4 Innovation to Cassava Processing 48
4.5 Seasonal Influence on Cyanide Content of Cassava 50

CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Conclusion 52
52 Recommendation 52 References 54
Appendix I 56
Appendix II 56
Appendix III 57

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Cyanide, is usually found in compounds. It can interact with metals and other organic compounds. Cyanide refers to all of the cyanide compounds that can be determined as the cyanide ion, CN. The cyanide ion is a conjugate base of a weak acid, hydrogen cyanide, which is an extremely poisonous gas with an almond odor. Other forms of cyanide compounds are sodium cyanide (NaCN) and potassium cyanide (KCN). Cyanide can be produced by certain organism (e.g bacteria, fungi and algae), and equally present in plants.

Cyanide ion is one of the most rapidly working po isons. Lethal doeses taken orally act in minutes, cyanide, poisons by asphyxiation, as does carbon monoxide, but the mechanism is different. Instead of preventing the cells from getting oxygen, cyanide interferes with oxidative enzymes, such as cytochrome oxidize, which is vital to every cell in use of oxygen. Oxidizes are enzymes containing metal usually iron or copper. Cyanide binds tightly to the enzyme cytochrome C and forms stable cyanide complexes with Fe3+ ion and inactivates the enzyme system.

Much of the cyanide in soil, water and air comes from industrial processes gold mining, waste waters from starch industry. The major source of cyanide in water are discharges from metal mining processes, other sources include exhaust, release from certain chemical industries, municipal waste burning and use of pesticides containing cyanide. Underground water can be contaminated by cyanide present in landfills. In other body, cyanide can combines with plants foods including almonds, millet sprouts, lima beans, soy spinach, bamboo shoots and cassava roots, cyanide occurs as part of naturally occurring sugars or other complex organic compounds.

 

 

1.1 HYDROGEN CYANIDE
Chemical formular: HCN
Synonyms: Hydrocyanide acid, prussic acid,
forminitrile, carbon hydride nitride
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) was discovered by scheele in 1982. He made it by heating sulphuric acid with Prussian blue; hence the old name was prussic acid. HCN occurs in nature as glycoside amygdalin in some plants, for almonds, cassava etc.

Hydrogen cyanide together with sodium cyanide and potassium cyanide are the most of cyanide likely to be found in the environment as a result of industrial activities. Its presence could be found in air, water, soil, and even in gaseous state (present in solution in cassava root), with a faint, bitter, almond like odour. It is a potential metabolic poison present in some food crops and other plants.

Hydrogen cyanide is a small molecule composed of a carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen atom joined together by a stable triple bond. This poison is best known for its inhibition of many enzymes that are important in animal metabolism. Enzymes are proteins that act as catalyst in biochemical reaction.

It could be made to act as an anti-herb ivory compound to discourage plant consumers (pests). Most often, it attaches itself to other molecules in the form of cyanogenic glycosides. In example of one such compound is amygdalin (from stems of cherry, apricot etc). In this form, cyanide is non-toxic to the plant, only in the breakdown of cyanogenic glycosides, during animal consumption or digestion, is hydrogen cyanide released. For example, cows…

 

 

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FOOD IRRATION IN NIGERIA (PROSPECTS AND PROBLEMS)

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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction (Origin)
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Principle and processes of food irradiation
2.2 Methods of irradiation
2.3 Safety of irradiated foods
2.4 Consumers acceptance of food irradiation
2.5 Beneficial effects of food irradiation
2.6 Problem association with good irradiation
2.7 Health Risk
2.8 Effects of irradiation on the content of food
2.9 Effects Of Irradiation On Biological Process Of Animal

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Conclusion
3.1 General Review
3.2 Recommendation
3.3 The Further Of Food Irradiation
3.4 References

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.0 WHAT IS IRRADIATION
Just a mention of the world irradiation, sparks strong objection, usually based on misunderstanding of the process involved and its effects on foods. Very simply, irradiation is a process of exposing food, either prepackaged or in bulk, to very high energy, invisible light waves called radiation. The process controls the amount of radiation the food absorbs. F or irradiation is a means of preservation, it is used to extend product shelf life.

The radiation energy used is able to cause changes in molecules such as breaking chemical bonds. At small irradiation, does, properties of the food such as sprouting and ripening can be modified. Higher doses can alter molecules in microorganisms so they can no longer cause spoilage or human illness. (Andres et al 2002).

Food irradiation is a means of food preservation that has been in development since the early part of the twenty century. If applied properly, irradiation can be effective in a way of reducing the incidence of food born disease and treatment of variety of potential problem in our food supply. It is capable of improving the safety and quality of many foods and extending their shelf life.

Irradiation, however, is not a care all process. It is not suitable for every food and it cannot reverse spoilage which has already occur. Foods are treated with lionizing radiation to accomplish many different goals. Food processing technology can improve he safety of food through the reduction of pathogenic bacteria and other microorganisms as well as parasites t hat cause food borne diseases. (Morehouse 1998).

Early in the 1920’s a French scientist discovered that irradiation could be used to preserve food. The technology was not adopted in the United State of America until World War 2. At this time, there was a need to feed mallow of men and women in uniform. The United State Army sponsored a series of experiments with fruits, vegetables, dairy products, fish and meats. In 1963, the United State saw its first approval of food irradiation when Food and Drug Administration approved its use to control insects in wheat and wheat flour.

In 1964, additional approval was given to inhibit the development of sprouts in white potatoes. In 1983, approval was granted to kill insect and control micro-organisms in a specific list of herbs, spices and vegetables, seasoning. So many verities of food have also received approval since then till date.

The latest approval for irradiation in the United State of America was granted in December 1997 for red meat. (Delaplane et al 2002).
Irradiation of foods is one of the recent advances in food preservation techniques. Food irradiation is a process whereby food is expose mainly to ionizing radiations at short wave length from the electromagnetic spectrum plus highly accelerated intra and extra mealear particles such as electrons, protons, alpha – particles and Neutrons.

The longest wave length electromagnetic radiation example:- infrared and radio wave have lower energy content lower penetrating power and are non-ionizing. The process of food irradiation uses gamma rays from radioactive isotopes. Such as cobatt – 60 or Caesuim – 137, x –rays or electron from unear acceleration. Cobait – 60 has been the…

 

 

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THE STATUS OF PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION OF CEREALS IN NIGERIA

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CHAPTER ONE

1.0     Introduction

CHAPTER TWO

• Brief Description Of Various Types Of Cereals

2.1     Maize

• Sorghum And Mihet
• Cotton Seed Meal
• Rice
• Wheat
• Nutritive Values Of Various Types Of Cereals
• The Processing Of Various Types Of Cereals And It’s Uses To Mankind
• Microbial Effects On Cereals
• Preservation/Storage

CHAPTER THREE

3.0     Conclusion

REFERENCES

 

CHAPTER ONE

 

1.0     INTRODUCTION

          Of all the plant on which man has depended for his food, cereal grains are by far the most important. Since recorded history, cereals grains are the seed by cultivated grasses that include wheat, corn, 0at, barley, rye, rice, sorghum and millet.

There are a number of reasons why cereals have been important in man’s diet. They can be grown in areas with diverse climatic and soil conditions. They give yield peracre (0.4ha) as compared to most other crops and once harvested, their excellent storage stability combined with their high nutritive valuers make them most suitable for storage.

They are easy to be packaged and transported and can be used to produce a large variety of high desirable foods both for man and animals.

Cereal grains are the most important source of the world’s total food. The grains are eaten in many ways, sometimes as a paste or other preparation of the seeds more often milled and further processed into flour, starch, oil, bran, syrup, sugar, etc. They are also used to feed the animals that provide us with meat, eggs, millet, butter, cheese and a host of other foods. Cereals grains are preserved in ways which make them to last long for processing.

 

 

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ISOLATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF MOULD ASSIOCATED IN THE SPOILAGE OF BREAD

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ABSTRACT

 

        The comparative study of microorganisms associated with the spoilage of banana. “Banana is a general term embracing a number of species or hybrid in the genus musa, family bacteria organisms, small pieces of decayed tissue from the leading edge of the lesion was transferred, by means of sterile techniques, to the SDA contained in covered dishes and incubated at room temperature (28-37⁰c). The fungal and bacterial growth visible within 2-7 days. Each observed fungal and bacterial growth based on their morphological and cultural microscopic examination and this microscopic examination was done using the lactophenol staining technique. Some organisms like Erwinia species has been incriminated as pathogen, saprophyte or constituent of epiphytic flora of plants.

 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE                                                           

1.1      INTRODUCTION                                                 1

1.2      AIMS                                                                  9

1.3      SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY                                9

1.4      STATEMENT OF PROBLEM                               10

1.5      LIMITATION                                                       11

 

CHAPTER TWO                                                           

2.0      LITERATURE REVIEW                                       12

2.1      MICROBIOLOGY OF BANANA                           12

2.2      MOULDS                                                            16

2.3      YEAST                                                                18

2.4      BACTERIA                                                          19

2.5      BACTERIAL SPOILAGE OF BANANA                 20

2.6      FUNGAL SPOILAGE OF BANANA                      21

2.7      OTHER FUNGAL SPOILAGE OF BANANA 23

2.8      CONTROL OF BACTERIAL AND FUNGAL DISEASES                                                         24

 

CHAPTER THREE

3.0      MATERIALS AND METHOD                               27

• STERILIZATION OF MATERIALS AND MEDIA USED                                                  27
• PREPARATION OF SABORAUD DEXTROS

AGAR                                                                 29

• PREPARATION OF NUTRIENT AGAR 29
• BACTERIAL/FUNGAL ISOLATION FROM

BANANA FRUIT                                                    30

• BACTERIAL ISOLATION AND

IDENTIFICATION                                                 31

• FUNGAL ISOLAATION AND IDENTIFICATION 32
• STAINING TECHNIQUE FOR BACTERIAL ISOLATES                                                  32
• ISOLATION OF YEATS AND MOLD 34

 

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0    RESULTS                                                              35

4.1    BACTERIAL EXAMINATION                                 36

4.2    FUNGI EXAMINATION                                         40

 

 

 

CHAPTER FIVE      

5.0    DISCUSSION                                                        43

5.1    CONCLUSION                                                      45

5.2    RECOMMENDATION                                            46

 

REFERENCES                                                      48

 

 

 

LIST OF TABLES

 

TABLE ONE:     CHARACTERISTICS OF BACTERIA ISOLATES

 

TABLE TWO:     BIOCHEMICAL ISOLATE FOR BACTERIA

 

TABLE THREE: COLONIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI ISOLATES

 

CHAPTER ONE

 

1.1   INTRODUCTION

Banana may be defined as a personal seed plant that produces an edible fruits, usually seedless, belonging to the species Musa acuminata, or are hybrids Musa acuminata, M. balbisnna. They are perennial herbs with long leaves, the bases of these leaves (petioles) remain tightly fused and form the trunk (Pseudostem) of a plant 2-9m in height (Ploetz, 1994),

“Banana” is a general term embracing a number of species or hybrids in the genus musa, family musceae. In some areas of the world bananas are grown only as ornamental plants or for fiber.

It is found in tropical regions. The banana is mono carpic, flowering and setting fruit once before sit dies. It has inflorescence protective flag leaf. The flower stalk of most banana varieties is positively geotropic and bends from the vertical until its tip points towards vertical. Flower stalks are from 30 – 90 cm along, tapered and covered in a sheath of over- lapping bracks the flower are parthenogenic (self-fertile). And occur in group of 12-20 beneath the bracks.

At first, individual fruits called fingers, make up the groups (hands) which are arranged in a spiral around the flower stalk, forming a bunch.

At fruit set, a healthy banana plant will have 8-12 leaves, fruits mature in 60-100 days after flowers first appears depending on the season and cultivan. New banana plants arise as suckers from an underground rhizome. As old plant dies, new sucker are formed the rhizome expands and is called a mat. Banana are propagated by suckers, pieces of the Rhizome and by tissue cultivation (Ploetz, 1994)

 

 

USES

Bananas contain about 74% water 23% carbohydrate, 1% protein and 0.5 %, Vit., A 4 – ounce banana without the peel is a good source of vitamin Bb, Potassium, and fiber.

Banana fruit may be   eaten raw or as a cooked vegetable.   The fruit can also be processed for a number of food products.

Ripe fruits can be pulped for pure for in a variety of products including ice cream, yoghurt, cake, bread, nectar, and baby food. Ripe bananas can be dried and eaten, or sliced canned with syrup, and used in bakery products, fruits salads etc.

 

 

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