PROCESSING METHODS ON  PROTEIN AND CYANIDE CONTENT OF AFRICAN YAM BEAN

(Sphenostylis Stenocarpa)

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ABSTRACT

 

Raw African Yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) was subjected to various processing methods Viz: steeping in water for 6 hr and then boiling for 10, 20, 30, minutes respectively (samples B); steeping in water for 12 hours and then boiling for 10, 20, 30, minutes respectively (sample C) and finally sample A was raw yam bean which served as control. The entire sample was dry – milled into fine flours. The glycosidic cyanide, crude protein, ash, moisture, some functional properties and bulk density of the flours were analyzed from the results, protein and cyanide content of sample A (raw sample) are 25.20% and 72.23ml. results showed that the toasting, process gave the highest protein (24.12) with no trace of cyanide and it negatively affected the protein content of the samples reducing it from 25.20 to 17.57, 17.51(%) respectively. 12 hours soaking and few minutes boiling process negatively affected the protein content of the samples reducing it from 25.20% to 13.12, 12.78, 12.09 (%) respectively but have the strongest impact in covering the cyanide level from 72.23ml to zero respectively. Moisture content ranges from 400% – 14%, Ash ranges from 2.50% to 5.00%, water absorption ranges from 105g/ml to 290g/ml, oil absorption ranges form 0.98 – 1.95g/m. The bulk density showed 0.74g/ml – 0.88g/ml.

 

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

Title page

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

 

CHAPTER TWO

• Literature Review

2.1     Legumes

• Nutritive Value Of Legumes
• African Yam Bean
• Utilization Of African Yam Bean
• Limitations In The Utilization Of African Yam Bean
  • Unacceptable Flavour
  • Hard – To – Cook Phenomenon
  • The Presence Of Anti – Nutritional Factors
  • Pre – Conditioning Treatment Used In African Yam Bean Processing

2.7.0            Functionality of Legume Protein/Flour

• Nitrogen Solubility
• Water And Oil Absorption
• Emulsion Capacity
• Foam Capacity
• Gelation

 

CHAPTER THREE

3.0     Materials And Source

• Sample Preparation
• Flow Charts For The Production Of The Different flour samples
  • Flow Chart For The Production Of Sample A (Raw Sample)
  • Flow Chart For The Production Of Samples B
  • Flow Chart For The Production Of Samples C
  • Flow Chart For The Production Of Toasted Sample (D Sample)
• Determination Of Functional Properties Of African Yambean Flour
  • Water Absorption Capacity
  • Oil Absorption Capacity
• Chemical Composition Of African Yam Bean
  • Determination Of Moisture Content
  • Determination Of Ash Content
  • Determination Of Crude Protein Content
• Determination Of Glycosidic Cyanide
• Determination Of Bulk Density

 

CHAPTER FOUR

Results / Discussion

CHAPTER FIVE

Conclusion and recommendation

References

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) belongs to the genera papilliona sec which is in the class known as Leguminousae (Okigbo, 1973). It is one of the neglected indigenous grain legumes in Nigeria. It is produced mostly in the eastern part of the country where it is consumed in different forms such as snacks, delicacy, man meal etc. It can be used for the fortification of other foods (Eke, 1997)

In Nigeria, it has as many names as there are communities cultivating it. Some of the names are Okpdudu, Azam, Uzuaku, Ijiriji, Azara, Ahaja, Nzamiri, Odudu, Girigiri (Hausa), sese (Yoruba) and Nsana (Ibibio) (Ogbo, 2002).

The high protein content of African yam bean makes it an important source of protein in the diets of population groups of many tropical countries (Kon, 1979, Ekpen young and Borchers, 1980). In addition, the high protein bean flour fractions could be substituted for wheat flour to produce acceptable qualities of cookies breads and leavened doughs (Uebersax and Zabik, 1986; Nzereogu, 1993).

It may also be consumed as porridge after cooking. The mature dry seeds can be used to prepare “moi – moi” and “akara” (Ezueh, 1973; Akoma, 1996). The African yam bean apart from being rich in protein also contains carbohydrate, fat and minerals (NAS, 1979).

A major constraint in the utilization of African yam bean is the different dehulling method. Traditionally, the dehulling method involves manual removal of the hulls from the individual soaked seeds. This method is quite laborous (labour intensive), time – consuming and does not favour effective utilization of the bean. It is widely believed that under cooked African yam bean seeds cause diarrhoea and over cooked seeds cause constipation (Asusu and Undie, 1986).

Previous works showed that steeping will among other things improve the dehulling characteristic of the African yam bean while maintaining the nutritional quality viz: invitro protein digestibility and also improving the functional properties when processed into flour (Abbey and Berezi, 1988). It is evident that better processing methods will not only enhance the acceptability and utilization of this legume but will also improve the nutritional status of the consuming populace (Uebersax et al, 1989).

The overall objective of this study is to investigate the various processing methods and their effects on the protein and cyanide content of African yam bean in conclusion, before the commencement of any research or project, there is meant to be aim/aims of such research.

As such, the aims of this study include:-

1. To determine the hydrogen cyanide content of the flour.
2. To analyse for the crude protein content of the flour.
3. To determine some of the functional properties of the flour.

 

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MALARIA PARASITE AND ITS EFFECT TO HUMAN HEALTH (A CASE STUDY OF UNTH ENUGU)

 

 

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ABSTRACTS
The detection of malaria parasite in the blood which was the major aim of this project was carried out and experimented data shows the existence of three species of the parasite in the human blood cell vis:
(a) Plasmodium falciparium (b) Plasmodium Malaria
(c ) Plasmodium Vivax. More over, the last remaining spp which is Plasmodium Ovale was not observed at all in the human blood cell.
Out of 150 specimens collected, 110 were found to be positive indicating that about 75% people in our country Nigeria were living under the shadow of this infectious disease.
Finally, in our finding. It was assumed that the group of people that are more subsetible to this malaria parasite were children under the age range of 1 to 10 and the pregnant women in the adult range. This finding was made after staining the thick and thin film using the different stains vis. Leishman, Giemsa, and field stains which enhances a clear observation of the morphological appearance of the organism under the microscopic view.

 

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS
1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
1.4 HYPOTHESIS
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 THE STAGES OF DIFFERENT SPECIES OF MALARIA PARASITE.

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD
3.1 MATERIALS USED
3.2 SAMPLE COLLECTION
3.3 METHOD OF SAMPLE ANALYSIS
3.4 PREPARATION OF BLOOD FILM
3.5 PREPARATION OF BUTTER SOLUTION TO BE USED WITH GEMSA STAIN
3.6 DIFFERENT BETWEEN THICLE AND THIN FILM
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 TABULATION OF THE RESULT OBTAINED
4.2 DISCUSSION
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION
6.0 REFERENCE

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Malaria parasite is regarded as one of the most serous health problems facing almost the whole world today. It was noted that this parasitic disease is caused by species of protozoa called Plasmodium Spp. Within the compass of medical environment, malaria was known to be a parasitic disease that gets into human system through the pathogenic bite of an infected female anopheles mosquito. (Knudsen, 1992).
Malaria parasite was also found to be mostly infective to the children under 5-6years and pregnant women, this is because this group of people usually build antibodies which do not prevent the endemic disease of the parasite, but tolerate the victim to a point where it is not consistently lethal (WHO 1986). In the year 1880
Alphonsus lavaran first observed this parasite at it merizoit stage and was published in the B “Bullentine de Aeademic de medicine pariss”. Futher findings on this malaria parasite was carried on by Italian doctors. Which includes Golgi manson, Baslianelli etc.

 

 

This people observed the mechanism of spreading and the life cycle of the parasite. It was also estimated that 270 million new malaria infection occur worldwide along with 110million cases of illness and 2million deaths, where 25% of childrens death in Africa aere attributed to malaria parasite (WHO 1986).
Malaria parasite being a parasite which falls into protozoa called sporozoa. It means that they are spore formers, their life cycle involves and alternation of generation, one which is sexual and the other asexual method of reproduction. The sexual and asexual generation in this parasite take place in two different hosts. In a complex life cycle like this where the parasite has two host, the definite and the intermidiate host. In the definite host, the parasite carries out the sexual part of the reproduction of which female anopheles mosquito is the host which the asexual part will be carried on in the intermediate host which is in the human blood system (Franklin and wehrle 1948).

 

According to cheesBrough (1987) this plasmodium Spp which is the causative agent of this malaria parasite are of four varieties species that attacks man. They are (a) Plasmodium Viax which cause tartian malaria, or vivax malaria (b) Plasmodium Malaria, the cause of quatain malaria also called malaria malariae ( c) Plasmodium Oval that causes oval malaria and finally (d) Plasmodium Falciparum which is the agent of malignant tartian malaria. With skill and experience these organs and the differet disease they cause can be possibly differetiate from each other.

 

LIFE CYCLE.

Among all the mosquitoes that suck blood, it is the female species that has the quality capable of sucking blood, the male mosquitoes are vegetarians which means plant feeders, they feed on the plant juice which they suck. It is the female mosquito in the genus anopheles that bites man to suck blood, and in the process inject the malaria parasite in the body system.
Infecteous mosquito contain in their salivary gland plasmodia which occur in spindle – shaped form known as sporaozonite. Once a mosquito that is parasitise by this organism feeds on the host liver (intermediate host), it inject the sporozoites, these migrate to the host liver where in the parenchymal cells they multiplies asexually. This pact of cycle is known as exo-erythrocytic schizogony, exo-erythrocytic indicates that it take place outside the red cell, “schizogony” literally meaning splitting generation. This Malaria Parasite leaves the liver cells, enter red blood cells, and begin the erythrocytic schizogony phase.
While para-erythrocytic cycle continue in the parenchymal cell of the liver. The exception being plasmodium falagraum which do not undergo paraerythrocytic schizogony cycle in the red cell the malaria parasite grows in size making use of globin in haemoglobin as its source of protein as amino acid, the residual product collects as a pigment.
Then division of the protozoan nucleus occur. At this point, the multinucleated organism inside a red cell is called schizont or segmneter. And a separate nucleus which is surrounded by its own cytoplasm is called a merozorite. The number of the nuc…

 

 

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FERMENTATION PRODUCTION OF CASSAVA FLOUR FOR BAKERY INDUSTRIES

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ABSTRACT

A high quality cassava flour has been produced using fermentative method which has been found worthy by the bakery industries. Bread were made from unfermented cassava flour respectively. The proximate chemical composition and sensory qualities of the cassava bread were compared to those of bread were compared to those of bread from 100% wheat flour as refrence. Apart from protein and fat contents of the reference bread components (aoh, fubre and moisture) of the cassava bread were similar to those of the wheat bread.

 

TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Aim and Objectives 6
1.2 Statement of Problems 6
1.3 Limitation 7
1.4 Justification 7

CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Literature review 8

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials and Methods 18
3.1 Collection and Preparation of Materials 19
3.2 Flow Chart of the First Set of Cassava Flour Production 22
3.3 Flow Chart of the Second Set of Cassava Production 23

CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Result 24
4.2 Discussion 26

CHAPTER FIVE
Conclusion and Recommendation 28
5.1 Conclusion 28
Reference 29

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Cassava Manuhot Exculanta cranty in a prennial woody shrubs with edible root, which grows in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. It is also called yucca, manioc and mandioca. Cassava has the ability to grow on marginal land where cereal and other crops do not grow well. It can tolerate draught and grow in low nutrient soils. Because cassava root can be stored in the ground for up to 24 months and some varieties for up to 24 months and some varieties for up to 36 months, honest may be delayed until market processing or other conditions are favorable.

Cassava is the basis of many produces, including food. In Africa and Latin America cassava is mostly used for human consumption, while in Asia and parts of Latin America it is also used commercially for the production of animal feed and starch based products. In Africa, cassava provides a basic delay source of dietary energy. Roots are processed into a wide range varites of granules pastes, flours, etc or consmed freshly boiled or raw. In most of cassava growing countries in Africa the leaves are also consumed as a green vegetable which privies protein and vitamin A & B.

In southeast Asia and Latin America, cassava has taken on an nomic role. Cassava starch is used as a binding agent, in the production of paper and teatiles and monosodium glutament, an important voring agent, in the Asia cooking. In Africa today, cassava is beginning to be used in partial substitution for wheat flour.

Planting materials should be made available to farmers at all times. To complement the efforts of MOFIA on the multiplication of compared planting materials for the farmers a programme should be initiated to identify and select 3 to5 farm each of the agroecological zones with the potential to take part in this exercise. A conscious effort should be made to provide inputs and logistics through a special fund to make this workable. This should form part of an overall national action plan for the industry.

In order to made cassava attractive for use in industry, there in the need to substantially reduce the price of cassava roots to outdo the cereals, its closet substrate. To reduce this, the following should be considered (i) support for research to develop high yielding varieties that would yield in excess of 40 nature tones per hectare.

There varieties should have low gynogenic potential (ii) support research and extension to develop and disseminate information on improved agronomic practices such as optimum plant population, we of healthy planting materials, development of sustainable production systems to maintain soil fetidly such as intercropping, rotation and manuring efficient pest and disease management practices (iii) support research and action to develop method of preserving planting maternal when cassava is harvested during the dry season. Arrangement involving banks, organized producers and associated marketing companies (who provides guarantees of payment on behalf of producers) could be arranged @ effords should be made to encourage the private sector to enter into the large scale production of cassava.

 

Modern farming estates with outgrower scheme should be encouraged and supported. These will enable the use of machinery and the employment of modern farming ledinques to improve efficiency and profitability. To encourage investors to enter into the development of farming estates, a number of potential proving area should be identified and provided with good access roads and other infrastructural facilities (v) small scale cassava farmers should be organized into farmers group to facilitate in the sharing of facilities and dissenmenation of tedinical informations.
Labour/drudgery in harvesting could be reduced through testing and adoption of simple manrinel lifting/diagting devices that lifting pole) (v) the use of appropriate harvesting equipment to cut down on cost of harvesting. The simple hand lifter used by peasant farmers in Thailand and adopted by the post harvest. Unit of the Agricultural Engineering Department of Ministry of food and Agriculture should be cassava farms (x) for commercial and large scale farmers, the leaping conversely cassava harvester which was developed in Germany and Currently being tested at Kwame Nkrumdi University of Science and Technology could be adopted of found to be practical.

 

The harvester lowest 2 – 3 hectares of cassava in eight hours, an operation which would requires about 75 man hours. The equipment designers are readily to enter into agreement with local manufactures for assembling the harvests locally.
In the tropics cassava flour production is comparatively a virguis bade and virtually wheat flour type used here are imported. To this effect, wheat are imported can be reduced tremendously by partial or complete substitution of the wheat flour with flour and starch from tropical crops such as roots and tubers (cassava, yam and sweet potato) and cereals (maizge, rice sorghum and millet).

 

Among the roots and tuber, cassava is the best to replace wheat partially or completely due to its high yield and low cost of production since the charge from locally produced foods to wheat based foods has resulted to an increase in wheat importation in several Africa Countries since the crop is either not grown due to climate limitation, or where grown” production can supply only a small percentage of the requirement.

 

Although partial substitution of wheat flour with cassava flour up to 40% has been reported for the production of bakery product by kim and Deliuter, Morton, Eggeston et al, Omoata and Bokage, little has been reported on complete substitution of wheat flour with cassava flour and the effect of fermentation on the substitution properties of cassava flour. In this research project, the researcher intends to give a wrid reports of how the succeeded in producing cassava flour by fermentation using local available materials so that industratists schools and local bakers…

 

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ANALYSIS OF CONTAMINATION OF ALASA RIVER

IN BURUTU LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF DELTA

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ABSTRACT

Water sample were collected along these river at various location, and were studied. The parameters determined were P4, temperature, conductivity, total hardness, alkalinity, ca hardness, maghardwen Cation (Pb2+ Fe2+ Cu2+) were also determined using atomic absorption spectrometry (DDS).
From the analysis showed that PH ranges from 6.10 – 6.80 temperature from 63.10 us/cm – – 63.90 us/cm-1 while were hardness 6.00mgk – 6.60mgk alkalinity rages from 7.00 – 9.00 Ph2+ ranges from 0.2mgk – 0.16mgk CU2+ ranges from 0.01mgk – 0.03mgk Fe2+ ranges from 0023mgk – 0.23mgk Nl2+ ranges from 0.11mgk – 0.70mgk.
The result of the analysis revealed that the sample are soft and would leather easily with water.

CHAPTER OF CONTENTS

Title Page ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Abstract v
Table of Contents vi
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Statement of problem 2
1.2 Objective 2
1.3 Limitation 2
1.4 Hypothesis 2
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review 3
2.1 Effluent 6
2.2 Effluent Quality 7
2.3 Type of Pollution 8
2.4 Classification of Water Pollution 9
2.5 Effects of Water Pollution 11
2.6 Quality Criteria 15
2.7 Portable Water Standard 16
2.8 Storage and Preservation of Water Sample 18
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials and Method 23
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Results 28
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Conclusion/Recommendation 33
Reference 34
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Water is one the most abundant substance in nature. It was previously considered to be an element, not until Canvendish proved it to be a compound consisting of hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of 2:1 by volume.
Water covers approximately three quarters of the entire surface, but in spite of this apparent abundance, several factors have limited the amount of water available for human use.
It is of fundamental importance to all kinds of plants and animals and therefore to man. It is of equal importance with the air we breath in maintaining the vital process necessary for life and growth. But since it is not every available, its provision has form the earliest part of villages and town to the places where water supply exist.
Water is a vital commodity to industries for process field stock (reacting raw materials) solvent compound and cooling process. It is distributed in many forms such as rain water, spring water, sea water and water.

1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
The oil industries along this river discharge their waste sample into the Aleasa river, this effluent posses environmental hazards when disposed by the industries into water bodies, thereby causing effect on the life of the people.

 

 

 

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IDENTIFICATION OF FUNGI ASSOCIATED WITH TEA SPOILAGE OF SWEET POTATO TUBERS SOLD AT OGBETE MAIN MARKET IN ENUGU, ENUGU NORTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA. ENUGU STATE

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Spoilt sweet potato tuber samples bought from Ogbete Main Market Enugu were used for this study. After carrying out the practical, the result showed that a mixed flora of the spoilage of the potatoes examined. The fungi isolated were aspergillus spp, penicillum spp, rhizopus spp and mucor spp.

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIAL AND METHOD

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
6.0 LIST OF REFERENCES

REFERENCES

CHAPTER ONE

Sweet potatoe (ipomoea batatas l) is root tuber crop belonging to the family conva valaceae. It is an energy rich carbohydrate food. It thrives very well in moderately warm climates. It requires a growing period of at least four months of warm weather. The crep is grown extensively in Nigeria especially in one of the major subsistence crops in Nigeria. According to Olake Suisi (2004) root and tubers refers to any grown plant that stores edible materials in the roots, corms or tubers.

The total world production exceeds 140 million metric tones grown on 16.6 million metric hectares with yields of 0.86 metric tones per hectares. Estimates, of annual world production are 133m tones. The largest producer of the crop is China. Other leading producing countries of the crop includes Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia, Korea, Brazil, Nigeria and Ivory Coast. Sweet potato is a root crop which is believed to have originated in Central America and was introduced to Africa probably at the end of 19th century. It is a tropical crop with China producing 85% of the world total while Africa accounts for just 5% (Awojobi 2004). The plant is now widely grown as an important staple food in a number of Africa countries including Burundi, Rwanda and Nigeria among others (Arojobi 2004).

 

 

Root and tuber crops are most important in Nigeria since they are major food crops and supply much of the carbohydrate requirement for normal health. The intensive hand operations which are needed to produce yams have made the growing of cassava and sweet potatoe more attractive to some farmers because of lesser labour they require for their growth.

 

 

A well recognized fact about this crop is that, it is an economical crop which provides a source of law cost energy to the human diet as compared to other root and tuber crops. Sweet potatoe are mainly used as food after, boiling, banking, roasting or trying and the leaves equally serve as vegetable. The fresh sweet potatoe contained 25.95% starch which is even low but falls within the range reported by Li et al (1994). There was a general decline in starch content with storage period and according ray and Ravi (2005) respiration and transpiration contribute to weight loss and alternation of internal and external appearance of the potatoes. Because starch is used as respiratory substrate, the starch content decrease storage and subsequently the dry matter also decrease.

In Nigeria, the vines form useful dry forage crop for ruminants and area of value for supplementary feeding during dry season. The leaves are edible and are eaten. They also serve as feeds for cattle, pigs and goats. They are good source of vitamins A and B. yellow and purple varieties is rich in carotene, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and ascorbic acid.

The appropriate composition of a mature tuber is water 50 – 80, percent, carbohydrate 10 – 40 percent, 1 – 25 percent, fat 2-6 percent, the sugar content varies 0.5 – 6 percent. The mineral constitutes are: calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, phosphorus, chlorine, sulphur and iron.

Various traditional method of sweet potato storage such as heap storage, plate form and pit storage method have been practiced in Nigeria and across African countries by farmers. Pit storage of sweet potato has been reported in Indonesia, Zimbabwe and Malawi by Woolfe (1992) and in Nigeria by Awojobi (2004). Pit storage can generally be considered to be cheap for the rural communities since it is less expensive.

In the face of the present food situation in Nigeria, one of the major obstacle to food production is that of storage. During harvesting seasons tubers crops are very much available at cheap prices but this availability is usually short lived due to storage problems. Tropical crops suffer tremendously due to inadequate storage practices. Sweet potato as crop suffer most and tuber crops. Nigeria farmers under their local practices have the problem of storing the tuber over a period of time after harvest. These problem are those originating from:
1) Attack by micro-organizing which gain entry through harvest bruises, insect and rodents their by causing rotting
2) Attack by rodents and arthropods especially insects
3) Weight loss due to high temperature which causes high rate of evaporation leading to high loss to water
4) Sprouting which renders the tubers unpalatable.

Report have shown that local farmers in Nigeria in the effort to minimum too much loss Nigeria in the effort to…

 

 

 

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