Methods Of Processing Yam

 

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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Varieties of yam
1.2 Composition of yam
1.3 Objective of the study
1.4 Significance of the study
1.5 Limitation of the study
1.6 Harvesting of yam and storage

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Yam
2.1 Methods Of Yam Processing And Preservation
2.2 Industrial Processing Of Yam
2.3 Problems Of Yam Processing
2.4 Reduction Of Instant Yam (Pounded Yam)
2.5 Problems Of Yam Production And Preservation
2.6 Nutritional Importance Of Yam And Uses
2.7 Anti Nutritional Factors In Yam

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Conclusion
3.1 Recommendation
References

 

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Yams are major crops in West Africa, the Caribbean – island of the South Pacific, South East Asia, India and Parta of Brazil. Nigeria alone accounts for considerable more than half the world’s total production of yam. (Ihekoronye and Ngoddy, 1985) noted that in many African Communities, yam is recognized as a prestige food crop. In Nigeria especially in Igbo land, it features prominently in many traditional festivals. Yam also occupies a place in many traditional marriage ceremonies and in special diets for mothers in conferment after child birth.

Yam have about ten species that c an be considered domesticated. The tuber is the main economically utilizable part of the yam. As with other crops, there are considerable variations in composition, not only between species but also within a single species or even a single cultivar, according to the cultural, climatic and edaphic factors of the environment under which it was grown, its maturity at harvest and the length of time for which it has been stored. Yam like other root crops composed primarily of carbohydrate on material and the have high water content. The water content generally his between 70 and 80%; yam may be taken as being two – thirds water. The carbohydrates consist mainly of starch with only small amounts of sugar, usually much less than one percent.The main constituent of yam starch is amylopectin. Amylose occurs as 10 – 20% of the starch and influences the properties of the starch.

 

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1.1 VARIETIES OF YAM
There are about five varieties of yam to be reviewed. These are D., alata, D. cayenesis, D., ratundata, D., esculenta and D. elumentorum.

A. DIOSCOREA ALATA (WATER YAM); Leaves are broadly ovate and are borne opposite each other on the stem and the vines are angular. There are no prickles or stipules. The tuber flesh is watery and creamy white and the tube is unevenly shaped. The skin is thick and there is a creamy or bright purple epidermal layer immediately below the skin. Maturity is in about 8 – 10 months. The vines are weak and twin in a counter clock – inflorescence and produces fruits which are three called capsule containing two seeds in each cell.

B. DIOSCOREA CAYENESIS (YELLOW YAM)

This has leaves that are as broad as they are and has cylindrical vines. Prickles where not joined are long and slender, and cylindrical in cross sect stipules are generally narrow and constricted towards the base. The tuber skin is thick and brittle. Vines twin anti-clockwise. This specie has a male inflorescence which occurs singly or in pairs, but not in groups.

C. DIOSCOREA ROTUNDATA (WHITE YAM)
D. Rotundata has cylindrical vines with leaves which are long and broad, it is mostly cultivated in West Africa and the West Indies. The tuber is white and requires about seven months to mature. Tuber is generally thin skinned and the vines twin anti-clockwise.

D. DIOSCOREA ESCULENTA (CHINESE YAM)
Here the vines twin in a clockwise direction and bear alternate, pale green relatively small cordate leaves. The plant produces a bunch of soft sugary tubers at the base of the stem. Tubers are small rounded structures. It maturity is about eleven months. The tubers bruise easily and do not store longer before it start sprouting within a short time.

E. DIOSCOREA DUMENTORUM (THREE – LEAF YAM)
D. Dumentorum have cyclindrical stems with digitate compound leaves of 3, 5, or 7 leaflets. Twining is clockwise. Tubers are bunched and the flesh colour varies from white to creamy white or yellow. Tubers may be bitter and sometimes they are soaked for about three days before being prepared. Some varieties are poisonous. Tubers reach maturity in ahttp://www.easyprojectmaterial.com/wp-admin/post.php?post=4738&action=editbout 10 months.

 

1.2 COMPOSITION OF YAM
The tuber is the main economically utilizable part of the yam. As with other crops, there is considerable variation in composition, not only between species, but also within a single species, or even a single cultivar, according to the cultural, climatic and eclaphic factors of the environment under which it was grown, its maturity at harvest and the length of time

 

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PROCESS FOR REFINING VEGETABLE OIL AND ITS FOOD VALUE

 

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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER TWO
2.1 The Oil Palm
2.2 Extraction and Refining of Vegetable Oil
2.3 Types and Sources of Vegetable Oil
2.4 Physical Properties and Chemical Reactions of Vegetable Oil
2.5 Role of Vegetable Oil in the Diet
2.6 Utilization and Production of Vegetable Oil
2.7 Factors Influence Quality of Oil
2.8 Preservation Method of Vegetable Oil
2.9 Problems Facing Vegetable Oil Industry
2.10 Cholesterol
2.11 Food Sources of Cholesterol
2.12 Effects of Cholesterol, Other Lipids and Lipoproteins to the Heart
2.13 Reduction of Cholesterol in the Body

CHAPTER THREE
Conclusion and Recommendation
References

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Palm oil is one the commercial product of palm fruit (Elaesis Guineesis). It is derived from the fleshy messieurs of the fruit of the oil palm which contains 45 – 55% oil. Palm oil belongs to a class of food known as fat and oil, which are generally termed lipid. It is oil from plant origin.
However, oil palm exists in a world semi and cultivated state in three kinds of the equatorial tropics:
– In Africa
– South-east Africa
– And in America
It is indigenous to West Africa and grows wild in most parts of Southern Nigeria.
The oil palm gives the highest yield of oil per unit area of any crop, and produces two distinct oil. The outer fibrous layer provide palm oil, the inner hard unit contains palm kernel oil, both which are important in world trade.
Though both palm oil and palm kernel are derived from the pulp during processing. The international trade in palm oil began in the beginning of the nineteenth century, while pal, kernels trade develop after 1850.
Naturally, the oil palm must be harvested before processing can take place. This is usually occurs when t he fruit bunches changes colour from black to orange and fruiting body becomes detached from the stalk (Piggott, 1990; p. 109).
Once the produce is harvested, it is taken to the mill for the palm oil to be extracted. This process is carried out in four stages:
– Sterilization
– Stripping of fruitless from bunches
– Digestion
– Oil extraction
Moreover, crude vegetable oil are extracted form the seeds/nuts.
Presently, it is done primarily by solvents extraction whereas in the past, it was done by physical means such as the application of heavy pressure to the seed/nut.
However, palm oil constitutes the most important source of edible oils and fats. The oil is semi-solid at room temperature due to the presence of natural saturat4ed fats. It severs as rich source of dietary energy yielding approximately a calorie. Palm oil contains fatty acid components which are essential nutrients (FAO, 1966: p, 119 – 121) and their functional and textural characteristics contribute to the favour and palatability of many natural and prepared foods. It is easily digested, absorbed and to utilized in normal metabolic processes. The oil is cholesterol free and is rich in carotenoids.
Naturally, palm oil contains a high level of tocols (vitamin E) which are poverty natural anti-oxidants. It contains a very 100 concentration of linolenic acid and a moderate proportion of linolenic acid, the most readily oxidized component of oils. Natural palm oil is known for its excellent stability at high temperatures. The low content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, which centers resistance to rancidity.
In addition, vitamins are accessory food factors, which cannot be synthesized in the human body, and have to be supplied in the diet, albeit in small quantities.
The fat – soluble vitamins namely:
– Vitamin A
– Vitamin D
– Vitamin E
– Vitamin K
Are contained in fat and oils. Vitamin A carotene from natural palm oil is nature’s most abundant source. In nature, there are approximately six hundred known carotenoids, rangity from yellow orange to red, lives and some of these pipmeirts possess vitamin A activity of varying degrees.
Red palm oil is one of the richest natural plant sources of carotenoids with concentration of 500 – 750 ppm. No other vegetable oil contains carotenoids in significant quantities.
Vitamin E is one of the most important phytonutrients in edible oils/. It consists of eight naturally occurring isomers a family of four tocopherots (alpha, beta, gamma and delta), and four tocotrinots (alpha, beta, —-mma and delta) homologues.
Tocotrinols are naturally present in most plants; however, they are dound most abundantly in palm oil extracted from palm fruits vitamin E anti – oxidant play protective role in cellular aging, atheroseclerosis and cancer.
Vitamin D on the other hand, is a sterol and is essential for borne formation.
Nevertheless, the vegetable oil obtained from t h e same fruits as palm oil is very different products because of its lauric and content. It has a similar composition and behaviours of those of acid content of this oil make it a desirable ingredient in the manufacture of margarines confectionery and based goods.

This acid also gives the oil some special quantities which makes it desirable in soap manufacturing. It acts as processing acids in the rubber industry due to its softening and plastering effects.
Oils and fat are liable to spoilage which results in the production of unpleasant odours and flavours. This is used in described as rancidity. Different types of oil and fats show varying degree of resistance to spoilage, thus most vegetable oils deteriorate only slowly, whereas animal fat deteriorate rapidly and marine oil. This is because animal fat contain a relatively high proportion of combined high unsaturated fatty acids. The two most common forms of rancidity are hydrolytic.
Generally, palm tree is highly valuable plant in the sense that non of its component is a waste. The palm founds could be used for there feeding of domestic animals as improvised roofs for local houses. The stem could on its own serve as alternative to plant in the conventional roof for modern building. The fruits/kernel provide goods source….

 

 

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MICROBIOLOGICAL PATHOGENIC BACTERIA EXAMINATION OF POWDERED TOBACCO

SOLD IN ENUGU URBAN FOR THE PRESENCE OF PATHOGENIC BACTERIA

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ABSTRACT
Tobacco powder is ground product of Nicotina Eabacum leaves. It is taken by inhalation through the nostril or by tucking it between the lower lips and the gum. Six genera of bacteria were isolated from seventy samples of powdered tobacco snuff collected form seven different location in Enugu Urban.

The samples were collected using sterilized bijou bottles and were analysed using cultural and microscopic methods. The bacteria genera identified were Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Esherichia, Enterobacter, Proteus and bacillus. The source of there contamination can be through exposure to the soil, dust, during growth, processing, storage and consumption.

They unavailable get contaminated thus there is no line of its processing that can be 100% bacteriological hygienic. Some of these organism are as human pathogen while other exist as common saprophyte.

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Aim and Objective 2
1.2 Statement of Problem 3
1.3 Limitation 3
1.4 Justification 4

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review 5
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials and Methods 9
3.1 Collection of Tobacco Powder Samples 10
3.2 Microbiological Examination 11
3.3 Bacteria Growth and Isolation 11
3.4 P reparation of Media 12
3.5 Inoculation of Media 13
3.6 Isolation of Bacteria 14
3.7 Biochemical Test for Identification

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Results 20

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Discussion and Conclusion 28
References 33

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Tobacco powder is a finely ground tobacco product taken by inhalation through the nose or by tucking it between the lower lips and the gum Tansery (1975. Tobacco plant, Nicotina tabacum is widely grown in the tropics and subtropics.

In Nigeria tobacco plantation are scattered all over the savanna areas of the country. Tobacco product include snuff, cigars, cigarettes and flavoured tobacco leaves that are readily available in all most all Nigeria market Ogundaro (1980)

There are various processes involved in the manufacturing of the powder. However in Nigeria the powder is produced by grinding the cured tobacco leaves with locally made mortal or by mechanical grinding Ogundaro (1980). It could be mixed with potash depending on people’s culture. This enhances flavour quality of the tobacco powder.

In United States of American tobacco powder is produced from dark air cured and fire cure types of leaf. It involves steaming of he leaves, chopping the leaves and packaging in hogshead or other container for fermentation to take place. This process requires about two months for completion. After fermentation the tobacco looses the creasote – like odour and becomes more aromatic the product is then dried by passing through heated container finally reduced to powdered form by using steel drums fitted with rotating rollers.

 

1.1 AIM AND OBJECTIVE
This work is aimed at determining the presence of pathogenic and other bacteria in tobacco powder sold in Enugu Urban.
To educate masses on the danger/health implication of taking contaminated tobacco powder.

 

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
The presence of bacteria in snuff can be due to contamination during the process of grinding, which is however not done aseptically in Nigeria.

MICROBIOLOGICAL PATHOGENIC BACTERIA EXAMINATION OF POWDERED TOBACCO

 

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PREVALENCE OF BACTERIAL GASTROENTERITIS AMONG CHILDREN AGED 0 – 15 YEARS

(A CASE STUDY OF UNTH)

 

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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 AIMS OF THE STUDY 3
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 3
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 4
1.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 5
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 MEANING OF GASTROENTERITIS TYPES
AND CAUSATIVE AGENTS 6
2.2 GENERAL SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS 15
2.3 SOURCES OF INFECTION 16
2.4 POPULATION AT RISK 18
2.5 PREVENTIVE MEASURES 18
2.6 TREATMENT 19

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 22
3.1 MATERIALS 22
3.2 METHODS 22
3.2.1 STERILIZATION 22
3.2.2 COLLECTION OF SAMPLES 22
3.2.3 PREPARATION OF CULTURE MEDIA 23
3.2.4 PREPARATION OF SAMPLES 23
3.2.5 LABORATORY ANALYSIS OF SAMPLE 23
3.2.6 BACTERIAL COUNTING 25
3.2.7 GRAM STAINING AND MICROSCOPIC WORK 25
3.2.8 BIOCHEMICAL TEST FOR IDENTIFICATION
OF ISOLATES 26

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS 32

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION
AND RECOMMENDATION 38
5.1 DISCUSSION 38
5.2 CONCLUSION 39
5.3 RECOMMENDATION 40

REFERENCES 41
APPENDIX I 45
APPENDIX II 48
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Age distribution of samples collected,
positive and negative cases 32
Table 2: Distribution of samples collected,
positive and negative cases with
their percentage distribution 33
Table 3: Age distribution, Number and
Percentage of each organisms isolated
across both sexes 34
Table 4: Age distribution of Number of Bacteria
isolated and their percentages 35
Table 5: Cultural characteristics and Gram
reaction of the isolates 36
Table 6: Biochemical test on the isolate 37

 

 

ABSTRACT

After bacterial gastroenteritis was conducted using blood agar, MacConkey agar and nutrient agar, the following microorganisms were isolated Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Streptococcus fecealis. Highest mean value is Escherichia coli (50%) followed by Salmonella typhi (30%), next were Klebsiella pneumonia (23%) and Pseudomonas aeroginosa (23%); least to be isolated is Streptococcus fecealis (8%). The age range mostly affected is between 4-7 years. Therefore hygienic practices should be observed by parents and children.

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

 

INTRODUCTION

Mark and Martin (2002), explain that gastroenteritis also known as gastric flu, stomach flue, stomach virus although unrelated to influenza. The further state that its marked by severe inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract involving both the stomach and small intestine resulting in acute diarrhea and vomiting.

 

They continue to point out that it can be transferred by contact with contaminated food and water. Inflammation is caused most often by an infection from certain viruses or less often bacterial, their toxins parasites or an adverse reaction to something in the diet or medication. Risk factors include consumption of improperly prepared foods, reheated meat dishes, seafood, diary and bakery products. Each organisms causes slightly different symptoms but all result in diarrhea (Patel et al., 2009). They further state that bacterial like

Shigella and Camphylobacter and parasites like Giardia can be treated with antibiotics.

Haffejee (1991), points out that viruses causing gastroenteritis include rotavirus, norovirus, adenovisus and astrovitrus. Viruses do not respond to antibiotics and infected children usually make a fully recovery after a few days. Rotavirus is the most common cause of gastroenteritis in children.

 

Gerald et al. (2004), explain that the symptoms and signs include vomiting, diarrhea and sometimes fever may be present. In more severe cases, signs of dehydration may appear.

 

Alhashimi et al. (2009), state that the main contributing factors include poor feeding in infants. Diarrhea is common followed by vomiting. In some cases when the stomach is empty, bile can be vomiting up. Different species of pathogenic bacteria can cause gastroenteritis including Salmonella, Shigella, Staphylococus, Camphylobacter jejuni, Clostridium, Echerichia coli, Yersinia, Vibrio Cholera and others.

 

1.1   AIMS OF THE STUDY

• To determine the prevalence of bacterial gastroenteritis among children aged 0-15 years
• To determine the bacterial types involved
• To determine the age-range mostly affected
• To determine the bacterial load in the children sampled

 

1.2   STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Alhashimi et al. (2009), explain that gastroenteritis can be caused by different species of pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella, Shigela, Staphylococus, Camphylobacter jejuni, Clostridium, Escherichia coli, Yersinia, Vibrio cholera and others.

 

This statement had prompted the need for a project work to be carried out on prevalence of bacterial gastroenteritis among children aged 0-15 years.

 

 

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MICROBIOLOGICAL QUALITY CONTROL OF SOYMILK BEVERAGE

SOLD IN INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY CAMPUS 3 ENUGU.

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ABSTRACT

 

Soyamilk is a white or creamy emulsion, which resembles cow milk in both appearance and consistency. It is an emulsion that can be made from whole or defeated soybean. This study is aimed at evaluating microbiological quality control of soymilk beverage sold in I.M.T campus 3 Enugu. Soymilk is produced from soymilk using the following methods; hot extraction, cold extraction, boiling before soaking and soaking before hot extraction depending on the producers choice. Serial dilution will be carried out, culturing of the samples will be carried out using pour place and streaking method with Nutrient agar and macconkey agar. Gram staining and microscopic examination will be carried to identify the organisms. Finally, biochemical test will be done to confirm the pathogenic organisms in the soymilk samples.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

The three basic needs of man are food, shelter and clothing; but food has been proved to be the most important. Food has been defined as that which can be eaten to nourish the body. Since the economic situation is getting worse day by day, it becomes imperative that an alternative soymilk be provided to improve nutritional status.

Soymilk (Glycine max) is a member of the family leguminosae, sub family papilaonaceae (Howell caldwell, 1972, Godin and spensly, 1976). iT is an annual summer legume being that it is found in the hairy pods of an erect bushy legume native to Asia and have been reported to have originated from Eastern Asia and were used as food as long as before the existence of written records.

Soybean is used to produce soymilk because it is rich in assential amino acids, which cannot be manufactured by humans. Hazard analysis critical control point will be observed during processing of soybean. Pottable water will be used to wash and process the soybean through out the processing protocal. Soybean is associated with anti-nutritional factors example trypsin inhibitor, haemagglutinins.

The microbiological analysis is expected to show that the spoilage organism found with soymilk are both coliform (Escherichia coli, shigella dysentrial, staphylococcus aureus etc.

 

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JUSTICATION

Soymilk is rich beverage and food product. Rich in protein, substitution for cow milk and other sources of protein and cheaper than other sources of protein and a good beverage for student to take all day long without feeling the cost. Therefore there is need to ensure that the milk is hygiene prepared, free from pathogen and other spoilage organism with longer shelf life to protect the students from diseases arisng from food poisoning

 

AIM AND OBJECTIVE

The objective of this research work is to carryout microbiological quality control of the soymilk beverage sold in I.M.T…

 

 

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