The Effect Of Different Concentrations Of Citric Acid On The Physicochemical Properties Of Orange Juice (Citrus Sinensis)

 

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ABSTRACT
The effect of different consecrations of citric acid on the physicochemical properties of orange juice was studied. Four samples of the orange juice were prepared, three of which were added (O.ICA), O.2 (B) and 0.3% (C) Citic acid respectively to the forth sample (D) No preservative was added. They were stored on the shelf for a period of one week and they were analyzed for pH, Pitaminac, dilatable acidity total solids, brix content, specific gravity, total plate count coliform count, fest & mold count and finally sensory evaluation. The results showed that over the days, the vitamin C content reduced from 62 mg to 30mg with the most retention in sample C. The pH of the samples reduced from 3.5. to 2.8 over the storage period with the most decrease in sample D (NP).
The total solids varied from 5.7% to 8.8% with the lesst solids in sample B (0.2%). The Torix content decreased over the storage period from 12.59 to 12 08 with the lesst decrease in sample D (N.P.). the titratable acidity ranged from 0.37% to 0.03 % within the storage period. The microbial analysis showed that there were growths in the nutriment agar, two yeast growths in the potatoedextrose agar which occurred in sample D and no growth in the McConkay agar. Sensory evaluation revealed that all the samples have similar colour and taste while samples A and D had the best flavour. This analysis shows that the use of citric acid in undiluted juice is not recommended except it is made into a drink.

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE:
1.0 Introduction 1
CHAPTER TWO:
2.0 Literature Review 5
2.1 Classification of Citrus Fruits 5
2.2 Origin of Orange 6
2.3 Dainties 7
2.4 Anatomy of Orange 8
2.5 Botany of Orange 9
2.6 Uses of Orange 9
2.7 Orange Juice 11
2.8 Spoilage of Orange Juice 12
CHAPTER THREE:
3.0 Materials and Methods 13
3.1 Source of Samples 13
3.2 Orange Juice Preparation 13
3.3 Flow Chart for orange juice preparation 13
3.4 Quality factors in fruits juice 17
3.4.1 Ascorbic Acid determination 17
3.4.2 Determination of total solids 17
3.4.3 Determination of filterable acidity 18
3.4.4 Determination of Specific gravity 19
3.4.5 P2H Determination 19
3.4.6 Determination of brix Content 19
3.5 Microbiological Analysis 20
3.5.1 Total plate count 20
3.5.2 Coliform count 21
3.5.3 Mold and Yeast count 21
3.6 Sensory Evaluation 22
CHAPTER FOUR:
4.0 Results and Discussion 23
4.1 Summary of physicochemical analysis and
sensory evaluation test 23
4.2 Discussions 24
4.2 Specific gravity 24
4.3 Ascorbic Acid 25

CHAPTER FIVE:
Conclusion and Recommendation 26
References 27
Appendices 29

 

 

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Oranges, demons, grape fruit and limes are the fruits of trees belonging to the citrus geaus. The sweet orange (citrus sinensis) is the most widely grown of the citrus trees and the fruits are either eaten fresh or made into orange juice. The edible portion is refereed to as the endocarp and consists of a series of segments carpels or loculs which contain the thin walled juice vesides surrounding the endocarp is the peel which comprises of 20-50% of the weight of the weight of the fruit and consists of the flavedo and the albeds (ihekoronye and Ngoddy,1985). The flavedo or outer peel is a layer of tissue underlying the epidermis and contains the chloroplast and oilsacs. The albedo or inner peel is a layer of spongy white tissue which is connected to the core and supplies the water and nutrient from the tree which are necessary for the fruit growth and development.
The proximate composition of the edible portion of the orange fruit is
Water – 86%
Protein – 0.6%
Fat – 0.1%
Micronutrients per 100g
Calcium – 24mg
Iron – 0.3.mg
Vit. A – 120mg
Thiamin – 0.06mg
Riboflavin – 0.02mg
Niscia – 0.1.mg

Ascorbic Acid – 36mg (source: Ihekoronge & Ngoddy 1985).
The colour of fruits when unripe is greatly influenced by the presence of chlorophyll, caroteaoids and anthocycanins. (Enwere 1998). Due to its high moisture content, fruits are susceptible to spoilage and are also highly perishable. Orange fruits are seasonal and hence in order to preserve them, they are processed into various food products such as juices, squashes, satadinaine etc.
Fruit juice is the liquid pressed by pressure or other mechanical means from the edible portion of the fruit (Simmond 1984).

According to Faye (1973) orange juice was defined as the unfermented juice of mature oranges of the citrus sineasis specie. Fruit juices serve as part of meals and they aid in the digestion of human diet. They supply minerals and vitamins in addition to energy when consumed but they deteriorate over a long storage period unless they are preserved by the addition of chemicals and by the application of heat.

Preservatives are food additives added to foods with the intention of arresting or retarding the deterioration of the food. Preservation involved the protection of food from the deterioration of microorganisms, enzymes and oxidation. This can be achieved by the application of heat and addition of chemical preservatives (Arnold 1982).

Preservatives include anti-ripening agents, anti-oxidants, antimicrobial agents and sprouting inhibitors. They may be added intentionally to food or may appear in foods as a result of pre – processing treatments, processing and storage (Ihekornye and Ngoddy, 1985).
The addition of chemical preservatives is governed by government departments which must give approval before it is permitted for use. In General it should not adversely affect the nutritive value of food.
Preservatives used in food include benzoic acid, ascorbic acid, vinegar, propanoic acid, citric acid etc. Although their limits in terms of individual specified preservatives, they may also be incorporated into the foods as permitted salts like sodium benzoate (Harold etal, 1992). Also the use of citric acid has been recognized by all major national and international food regulatory agencies as a good preservative for food and beverages.
The use of citric acid in fruit juices like pineapple juice has been found to give a positive result but in this work, it is aimed at investigating the effect of the…

 

 

 

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The Effect Of Processing On Afzelia Africana (Akpalata) And Brachystegia Spp Flour As Soup Thickner

 

 

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ABSTRACT

The effect of different processing methods on the functional properties of Akpalata (Afzelia Africana) and Achi (Brachystegia spp) flours were investigated. Parameters studied included the proximate composition, functional properties and sensory evaluation. Results of the proximate showed that (1% moisture 13, fat 13.83%, Ash 5.3%, crude protein 17.76% crude fibre 2.8%, carbohydrate 47.78%)while functional properties results showed that (Emulsification Capacity 2.7%, Water absorption 428% Oil absorption 14%, Gelatinization temperature 67oc) and organoleptic properties showed that boiling acid (Sample D) gave the best qualities required. The results of orgnoleptic properties showed that colour 6.58. texture 6.86, taste 6.83, general acceptability 6.82. toasting or roasting was found to be a good processing method for Akpalata (Afzelia africana). Sample D and B had good gelling property attributed to good soup Thickening. They also have good oil absorption capacity, which improves mouth feel which were generally acceptable

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Aims and Objective of the Work
1.2 Objective of the Study

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Akpalata (Afzelia africana)
2.3 Processing and Utilization of Afzelia africana (Akpalata)
2.4 Achi (Brachystegia spp)
2.5.0 Processing and Utilization of Achi (Brachystegia spp)
2.5.1 Rheological Properties
2.5.2 Types of Fluid Flow
2.5.3 Newtonian Flow
2.6.0 Pseudoplastic and Dilatant Fluid Flow
2.6.1 Bingham Flow
2.6.2 Flow Characteristics of Fluid Foods
2.6.3 Functional Properties Evaluation
2.6.4 Gelation
2.6.5 Emulsification
2.6.6 Water Absorption

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Experimental Method and Materials
3.1 Raw Material and Instruments Used
3.2.0 Sample Preparation
3.2.1 Processing of (Afezlia africana) flour
3.2.2 Processing of Achi (Brachystegia spp) flour
3.3 Proximate Analysis
3.3.1 Determination of Moisture Content
3.3.2 Crude Fat Content Determination
3.3.3 Crude Fibre Determination
3.3.4 Carbohydrate Content
3.3.5 Functional Properties Determination
3.3.6 Oil Absorption
3.4 Water Absorption
3.4.1 Gelation Temperature
3.4.2 Emulsification Capacity
3.4.3 Organoleptic / Sensory Evaluation
3.4.4 Soup preparation
3.5 Sensory Evaluation
3.5.1 Statistical Analysis
3.5.2 Sensory Evaluation
3.5.3 Statistical analysis

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Results and Discussions
4.1 Functional Properties
4.1.2 Water Absorption
4.1.3 Oil Absorption
4.1.4 Emulsification Capacity
4.1.5 Gelatinization Temperature
4.2 Sensory Evaluation
4.2.1 Colour / Appearance
4.2.2 Texture
4.2.3 Taste
4.2.4 General Acceptability

CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Conclusion
Recommendation
References
Appendixes

 

 

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LIST OF TABLES
TABLES
1. Flow Characteristics Of Fluid Foods
2. Proximate Composition of Akpalata (Afzelia Africana) Flour and Achi (Brachystegia spp) Flour
3. Functinal Properties
4. Effect of Processing on the Set Back Values
5. Summary of Sensory Evaluation Results
6. Emulsification Capacity
7. Anova Emulsification Capacity of Samples
8. Anova Gelatinization Temperature for Samples
9. Anova Set Back Value
10. Anova of General Acceptability

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Nigeria is presently passing through a developmental stage in which there is showing emphasis on local sourcing of raw materials and so there is a growing commercial interest in processing Nigerian foods.
The mechanism by which culinary products are thickened to varying degrees can be sub – divided into three separate processing such as starch thickening, protein coagulation and emulsification.
The role of the skilled cook when preparing starch achieve an overall product quality in terms of texture, consistency, appearance, flavour and yield.

The techniques used are many and varied which many include adequate dispersal of raw starch flour in the soup.
The processes ensure that each starch granules is free to take part in the thickening gelatinization process, hence, using correct recipe balance method and thorough stirring or agitation at all stages of preparation of cooking to prevent starch clumpiness and lumpiness.
Richard Maryland, Derek Welsby (1979)

The seeds of Afzelia Africana (Akpalata) and (Brachystegia spp) (Achi) undergo various mechanical devices like cracking the seed before boiling in water followed by dehyulling and grinding into flour in large quantities before it can be preserved for future consumption.
If this is achieved it helps to reduce the seasonal glut of the product and scarcity of the local thickening agents experienced each year.
Functional properties are influenced by the method of processing. Those processing methods are influenced by the functional, rhological and cooking qualities of the soup (Anazonwu, 1976).

Information are required to guide the food processor to choose the processing method that will give the most acceptable product.
Commercial production of tradition thickening agent will help the food engineer in the design choice of appropriate handling equipment and food processing system to be adopted.

The constraint encountered in the use of many thickening agents in soup-making is generally there composition of some anti-nutritional factors which nay induced flatulence and other digestive disorder arising from their consumption.

 

1.1 PROBLEM OF THE STUDY
People have been dealing on these edible indigenous woody plants (Akpalata and Achi) without knowing the food values, how to process, grow and preserve them.
Meanwhile, the general causes of all these negligent
1. Are due to dealing much on imported thickening agent and as a result over – look the locally made ones.
2. Lack of encouragement and lack of skills on how to prepare them.
3. Non-availability of these traditional thickening agents all the year round.
4. People having little or no knowledge of some of soup thickeners.
Therefore, in order to solve the above

 

 

 

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Production And Acceptability Studies Of Malted Sorghum (Sorghum Bicolor) Biscuit

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ABSTRACT

Biscuit was produced from malted sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and wheat flour blend. Sorghum grains were sorted, steeped in water, germinated and kilned. Four samples of biscuit were produced using sorghum and wheat in the following ratios samples

A; 30: 70, sample B; 50:50, sample C; 60:40, sample D; 100:0. Creaming method was used in biscuit production with specified ingredients.

Proximate analysis of the product (biscuit) was determinate viz. moisture content for sample A; 2.5%, B; 3% C; 3.5%, D; 2%, fat content for the sample A; 15%, B; 16%, C; 17%, D, 15.5%, Protein content for A; 8.52%, B; 8.7%, C; 8.79%, D; 8.35%, Ash content for sample A; 0.5%, B; 1.0%, C; 1.5%, D; 0.5% and Carbohydrate content for A; 73.48%, B; 71.24%, C; 69.21%, D; 73.65% respectively.

the sensory evaluation of the samples were carried out using hedonic scale. from the result, there was no significant difference at 5% level and 1% level between the four samples in terms of colour crispiness, flavour, and overall acceptance, but when compared with 100% wheat, there was a slight difference in texture of biscuits with “sorghum and wheat”, but from the score mean, sample B gave the best result.

 

 

 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives of the study

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Origin of Sorghum
2.2 Sorghum Utilization
2.2.1 Production of Malted Sorghum Flour
2.2.2 Malted of Sorghum
2.2.3 Steeping
2.2.4 Germination
2.2.5 Kilning
2.3 Method of Processing Wheat into Flour for Biscuit Making
2.3.1 Wheat Flour Production
2.3.2 Effects of Processing of Nutritional Value of wheat Flour
2.3.3 Functional Processing of Nutritional Value of Wheat Flour
2.4.0 Ginger
2.4.1 The History of Ginger
2.4.2 Ginger Cultivation
2.4.3 Spices and Other Oils
2.4.4 Ginger Processing
2.4.5 Uses of Ginger
2.4.6 Nutritional Composition
2.5.0 Biscuit
2.5.1 Definition of Biscuit
2.5.2 Classification of Biscuits
2.5.3 Hard Dough Biscuits
2.5.4 Lean Hard Dough Biscuits
2.5.5 Medium Hard Dough Biscuits
2.5.6 Puff Hard Biscuits
2.5.7 Lean Batter Biscuits
2.5.8 Highly Enriched Biscuits
2.5.9 Proximate Composition of Biscuits

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials and Method
3.1 Sources of Raw Materials
3.2 Raw Materials for Baking
3.3 Equipment
3.4 Chemicals
3.5 Method for Processing Malted Sorghum
3.6 Biscuit Production
3.6.1 Proximate Analysis of the Prepared Biscuits
3.6.2 Protein Determination
3.6.3 Fat Determination
3.6.4 Moisture Determination
3.6.5 Total Ash Determination
3.6.6 Carbohydrate Determination
3.6.7 Sensory Evaluation of Prepared Samples

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Results and Discussions
4.1 Proximate Composition of the Test Biscuits
4.2 Sensory Evaluation
4.3 Discussion

CHAPTER FIVE
Conclusion and Recommendation
References
Appendix

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Biscuit may be defined as a thin flat baked product made from flour, salt, sweetening agent fat and preservatives. They are crisps, unleavened and sometimes sweet pastry produced light by the addition – F baking powder or soda, sometimes with chocolate or fruit in put (Achukoh; 1992). Biscuit can also be defined as a baked product having not less than 8% of flour content calculated (Hannemah, 1981). Okaka, 1997 stated that biscuits are termed “cookies” in USA but the Word biscuit means a small cake like bun.
According to Terrell, 1981 there are basically some ingredients that are used for biscuit production such as sugar, salt, milk, shortening flavour leavening. Egg improves the volume of biscuit as well as the taste and flavour. Egg and butter are also used for variety, these improves the quality of the products.

Wheat flour is a critical and principal raw material in biscuit production its. Superiority over other cereals is due to the presence of gluten which inherently imparts all the essential qualities to their products. The absence of this simple protein in non-wheat flour makes them unsuitable as substitutes for wheat flour. Unfortunately, wheat is a temperature crop, there fore, our tropical climate does not favour its cultivation. Flour which has high gluten content are classified as a strong hard flour, and therefore produces a strong dough and thus a strong biscuit is produced (Richtea), while flour with small gluten content produces a soft I weak biscuit (Digestive) Aerating chemicals, syrups and water were further added as one of the basis ingredients for biscuit making (Achukoh; 1992).

The production of biscuits involves weighing, mixing, dough formation, kneading and rolling out, machining and shaping, prickling Bakino, cooling and packaging (Okaka, 1997).
The malting potentials of sorghum grains can be utilized to produce soft dough biscuit. Germinated sorghum grains, develop alpha – amylase, carboxy peptidase, endo – beta – 1, 3 – glucanase, pentosanase, limit dextrinase and endo – protease in the grain during malting. Malting involves essentially steeping, germination and limiting cereals, seedling growth by kilning. During germination enzymes are produced for the degradation of starch and protein in the cereal grain. Malting yields higher proportions of hydrolytic enzymes such as X and B – amylases which may be either completely soluble or largely insoluble depending on the variety.

Malted sorghum and wheat flour are used in order to check the baking potential of biscuit, malts produce from sweet sorghum and related variety usually contain insoluble amylase. The insoluble substances that make aqueous extraction impossible (Amori, 1 9 8 7) – Glucosidase in sorghum malt is also highly insoluble malt solid (Barry, and Dorota 1988).
Malting causes a decrease in the density of caryposis in sorghum grain (Isola, 1992). Lower the amount of lysine from 0.25% in unmalted sorghum to 0.18% in sorghum malt (Ilori, 1989) and reduces the milling energy (Swanstoo et al, 1994).
Time and temperature of storage influence the percentage soluble amylase in sorghum grain. For example, sorghum grain stored at 12t 23oc temperature for 2 to 3 years give higher levels of soluble amylase (between 57 – 73%) while nearly harvested grain give…

 

 

 

 

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The Incidence Of Candidiasis Among Single And Married Women Of Different Age Group

(Case Study, Unth Enugu)

 

 

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ABSTRACT

In thus work the incidence of candidacies was studied using selected patients of university of Nigeria teaching hospital Enugu analyzed for the presence of candidacies yeast infection. The specimens were cultured on seaboards agar and blood agar and subculture isolated were C aibicans C Tropical C Knusei C Pseudoizo P cals C paraknusei and C stellatoides. The prevalence of candidacies among patients of UNTH was monitored in terms of level of occurrence and microbial types. Also the prevalence of candidicesis infection was 40% samples under study.

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE
1:1 introduction
1.2 Aim and objectives
1.3 Statement of problem
1.4 Singnificant of study
1.5 Scope of study
1.6 Limitation
1.7 Hypothesis

CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Literature Review

CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Methodology
3.2 Sterilization of methodology
3.3 Population sample
3.4 Preparations of culture media
3.5 Collection of samples
3.6 Identification of isolates
3.7 Antibiotle sensitivity disc testing

CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Results

CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Recommendation
5.2 Conclusion
5.3 Reference
5.4 Appendix

 

LIST OF TABLE
Table I
Age distribution and incident of candidacies. Infection among single and married women of different age group patients unit
Table II
Diameter of zone of l one of inhibition of the organisms with each antibiotic after 24 hours incubation
Table III
Antimicrobial senses pattern of organisms isolated
Table IV
The protein of 80 urine sample detected with aibustixstrips.

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Candeda: This is a yeast like fungi several of which cause disease in man about 90% of infection are to candida albicans, which is normally present in mouth, intestine and veginal it is responsible for the infection in the sites defense mechanisms (carousal 1990)
Candida abbacies usually appears as oval yeast like cell that reproduce by budding however in infected areas. Filamentous hyphare plus pseudolyphae (which consist of elongated yeast cells that remain attached to each other many also be seen the yeast is easily grown at 250c 40 37 0c on sabouraudis glucose agar and if grown on cor a meal agar at 250c the organism can produce many characteristic thick walled chlamydospore Van leeuweuhoed (2 000) candida albicans is measured about 2.5 to 4.0 wm in diameter which can gives rise to pseudomycellun, in the body it has no sexual form the body it has no sexual form in poor medic at temperature of 2b0c it produces thick wall and resting cells is about 7 to 17 m in test positive in maminaliam serum it has the ability to split urear. it is pathogenic to rabbits. guinea Pig s and with where it cause abscesses in the kidney when give intran Veroush (Eleke, 2002).

Oral candidacies oral candidacies also called oral thrush) occurs and most frequently in the new born and is probably acquired during passage through and infected vagina the yeast appears as a creamy grade membrane covering the tongue and appears able to produce disease only because of the absence of their resident normal flora (Prescott et al; 1994) if thrush has not occurred by the 3rd day of life it is likely that it will appear but it should occur which will usually disappear without treatment as other members of the normal flora are acquired

Oral thrush in order children or Adults may occur as a result of endocrine disturbance or ceutaninosis (Particularity a deficiency of rib flauin as a complication of diabeta, as a result of poor oral hyepene or following the administration of corticosteroides or autibutics oral thrush also occur in bottle feed infants which the magnification of my white patches cowering red raw areas of mucous manbrance vanities , vagines cendiass is seen most frequents in women with diabetes, milieus deny pregnamai or following prolonged antibiotic therapy. The prominent symptom is a yellow, milk, veginals discharge yeast cells and pseudo my cell can be found on the mucous membrane and such infections may result in an intense inflammation of the entire ingunal area according to Atlas 199: 13) he state vaginal thrush in pregnant women are susceptible here with production of whish discharge with a pH below 5.2. Alimentary candidacies.

Alimentary candidacies may follow essentially any of the predisposing conditions listed for adult oral thrush; however the majority of cases occur as a result of prolonged broad spectrum antibiotics therapy which destoirys a large part of the normal flora of the intestine. The organisms may also cause interse inflammation of the parinal region the region around the arws and may spread to the and thing coetaneous are systemic candidacies infection of the skin by Candida usually occurs in those with metabolic disorders in those whose obesity result in continuously most tools of skin or in persons in whom part of the body are kept moist under surgical dressings

According to Prescott et al (1999, 18) systemic candidacies is exlvecnely but in debilitated person or those receiving immuno suppresure drugs sandida albicans can cause urinary trait infection endocarditis and meningitis chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis is also a rare syndrome in which the skin mucous membranes hair and nails become infected, such infections appears to occur in persons with T. cell defects manifested by their inability to respond to Candida certigens, in addition to vaging yeast infections the acid environment of the veginal and the proliferation of normal vaginal bacterial limited its growth when the environment of the vegina changes, situations that change the environment of the birth control pills. Which often change the vaginal pH or taking bread spectrum cutibioties such as tertiary cline which kills the normal vaginal bacteria in addition, patients with Aids of unc

 

 

 

 

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The Prevalence Of Trichomona Vaginalis Among Adults In Osumenyi

In Nnewi South Local Government Area Anambra State

 

 

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ABSTRACT

The prevalence of Trichomonas Vaginalis among adult in “Osumenyi” in Nnewi south local government Area of Anambra state was carried out. This was done using a stotal of one hundred adults from there different clinics viz ;- Health center, family planning and Antenatal Clinic in Osumenyi; in Nnewi South L.G.A of Anambra State. the general prevalence was 37 (37%) positive cases out of the 100 samples used. The highest number of positive cases were seen in Health centre Clinics, Osumenyi with (20%) positive cases, followed by family planning clinic, Osumenyi with (14%) positive cases and the least in Antenatal clinic in Osumenyi with (4% positive cases. The parasitic organism was confirmed using wet mount preparation of urine and genital secretions. The organism trichomonas vaginalis was identified by its Jerky swaying motion or jumpy movement. It was observed that the prevalence was highest in adults in the age range 31-45 years with 19 cases (19%) positive, followed by the age range 16-30 years with 10 cases (10%). Next was in aga-range 46-60 years with 5 cases (5%) and least in age-range 61-75 years with 3 cases (3%)

 

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Aim and objective
1.2 Hypothesis
1.3 Limitation/scope of the study
1.4 Limitation in the study
1.5 Statement of problem
1.6 Justification of the study

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials and method
3.1 Materials
3.2 Method
3.2.1 Sterilization
3.2.2 Population sampled
3.2.3 Collection of samples
3.2.4 Laboratory examination

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 DISCUSSION

CHAPTER SIX
6.0 Conclusion and recommendations
6.1 Conclusion
6.2 Recommendations
References
Appendix
LIST OF TABLES

TABLE I: Colour Clarity and odour of urine sample collected from both sexes of adult………………………………………….
TABLE II: Colour and odour of ggental secretion collected from both sexes of adult examine……………………………………..
TABLE III: Age distribution, numbering of possitive cases and negative cases of both sexes from health center, Osumenyi in Nnewi south L.G.A of Anambra State……………………………………………..
TABLE IV: Age distribution, number of positive and negative cases of both sexes from family planning clinic, Osumenyi in Nnewi south L.G.A of Anambra State……………………………………………
TABLE V: Age distribution, number of positive and negative cases of both sexes from Antenatal clinic, Osumenyi in Nnewi south of Anambra State.
TABLE VI : Age distribution of positive and negative case and their percentages from all the three clinics……………….

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Donne first discovered and named Trichomonas Virginalis in 1836.He found the orgnaism in genital secretions 7 women and men, but it was initially regarded as non-pathogenic (Donne, 1936). Trichomonas vaginalis is a pear-shaped, flagellaatic, motile protogoa, with an undulating membrance. It is about 10-20 Hm wide, and oxide. The organism is propelled by four anterior flagella with a flagellium attached to an undulating membrance (Heine, 1993). I.

Vaginalis is a eukaryrote, anaeobic and does not contain mitochoria in its cytop[lasm but instead contains specialized granules called hydrogenosomes throguh out the region of the cytoplasm with a slender posteriorly protruding regid rod called axostyle (Nester, est el, 2001 and Rultyle, 1983). I. Vaginalis exist only as a trophozoile and do not take o a cyst from (Lossick, 1990). Due to the organism’s unique energy metabolism,s the organism bears a strong resemblance to anaerobic bacteria (Petriu, 1998).

In wet mount preparation of vaginal secretions, the live organism can often be recognised by its unmistakably swaying motion (Nester et al, 2001). I. Vaginalis grows best under anearobic conditions and at elevated PH levels. Masimum growth and metabolic functions are greatest at PH of 6.0 (Spence, 1992) In accord with its anaerobic state, sthese interesting cytoplasmic double –bounded organelles (hydrogenosomes) remove the carboxyl group (CooH) from pyruvate and trasnfer electrons to hydrogen gas (Nester et al, 2001). I.

Vaginalis derives its glucose into oseccinate, acelate, malate, and hydrogen. In addition it produces some carbondioxide but nost via the kreb cycle pathway (Dyall and Johnson, 2000).
I. vaginalis causes sexually transmitted inecxtion (STI) calledTrichomoniasis. This infection is the most common nonviral sexually transmistted disease in the world. Trichomoniasis, sometimes referred to as “Trich” is primarily an infection of the urogenital tract,. Which infects both men and women. The urethra is the most common site for I. Vaginalis infection in men.

The organism can aslo be detected in the epididymis, semen and urine (Krieger, 1981). I. Vaginalis was first located in prostatie secretions from husbands of infected women (Drummond, 1936). In women, vagina is the most, common site of the infection the organism may be isolated from the cervix, vagina, bartholins glands, bladder and occasionally. The upper sreproductive / urinary tract (Reing, 1990). Over 95% of infections have been isolated from vagina and only 5% from the urinaryu tract of adult women (Grys, 1964) the urethra and skene’s glands are infected in 90% of cases.

There have also been instances where organisms were isolated from bladder urine (Thoniason, 1989). Infected men are usually asymsptomatic carriers of the organisms (Krieger, 1995) which most symptomatic I.Vaginalis infection occur in women (Wolner- Hanssen, 1989). It ranks third after bacterial vaginosis and candidiasis among the diseases that commonly cause vaginal symptoms (Nester, et al, 2001). According to World Health Organisation’s annual, estimates,

There are an estimated 7.4 million trichomoniasis cases each year in the united states, with over 180 million cases reported world wide (Weinstock et al, 2004). WHO in 1999 states that the infection rates have been reported by some researchers to be as high as 67% in Monogolia in 1988 (Schwebke, et al, of 40 – 60% in Africa and 40% in indigenous Australians. Trichomoniasis rates are also high in inner city populations in the united states. I .

vaginal is was originally considered a commensal until in the 1950s when the understanding of its role as a sexually transmitted infection began to involve (Swygard, et al, 2004). Trichomoniasis often leads to vaginitis, an acute inflammatrory disease of genital mucosa.
This infection is associated with preterm delivery, low birth weight and increase in infant mortality. It also pre-disposes individuas to HIV/AIDS and cervical cancer (Cohen, 2000 and Upcroft and Upcroft, 2001).

Among both women and men, I. Vaginalis is emerging as one o the most important factors in transmission and acquisition of HIV infection (Sorvillo, 1998). In women, the health complications include increased risks for the following, infertility, development of a typical pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), infection following gynecologic suggery and cervical inflammatory neoplasia. There have also been high rates of correlation between trichonioniasis and pregnancy complication in women (Cotch, 1997).

In men, I vaginals has been linked to main factor in infertility and as a common cause of non-gonococcal urethritis (NGU) in men (Sch webke 2002, and soper, 2004). Minkoff, et al (1984) identified a strong association between I vaginalis infection and prefern rupture of membrane. Several studies have showns I. Vaginalis to be a rish factor for tubal infertility (El-Shazly, 2001). Sorvillo (1998) states that I.Vaginalis may amplify HIV – I transmission by increasing subceptibity in an HIV-1 negative person and the infectiousness in an HIV-1positive patient. He further stats that I. Vafinalis is emerging as one of the most important cofactor in amplifying HIV transmission particularly in African American Communities in the united state (Sorvillo, 2001).

The association of trichomoniasis with HIV amplification is seen among men as well (Hobbs, 1999). I. Vaginalis has a significantly increased incidence of HIV transmission (Jackson, et al, 1998). I vaginalis elicits an aggressive local cellular immune response with a heavy influx of target cells in HIV. This response may increase a seronegative individual. Conversely in an HIV-seropisitive individual, punctuate haemorrhages, That are frequently associated wit I vaginalis infection, increased shedding and subsequent transmission of the virus (Cohen, et al, 1997).

In women, the infection is often characterised by vaginal i.e a thin foamy yellow – green, frothy vaginal discharge, vaginal odour, sometimes macodoros, pains with sexual intercourse, pain with urination and vulvovaginal sorness (Itching) (Rein, 1990, and Nester et al, 2001). (Common clinical signs include vulva erythema, inflammation excess of white blood cells seen on a wet mount preparation of vaginal discharge, numerous polymorphonuclear nuetrophils (Similar in size with Trichomonads) and occasional red blood cell (Rein, 1980), motile trichomonads in the wet mount preparation and a vaginal PH above 5.0, most of which overlap with Baterial vaginosis (Rein, 1984, and Wolner-Hassen, 1989).

The wall of the vagina and vulvu are diffusely red and slightly swollen (Nester et al, 2001). I vaginalis infection is a persistant disease of genitourinary tract, characterised with foul odour, serve cases, puncstuate or scattered pinpoint haemorrhagos are present. It may also cause preumonies bronchitis (public Health Agency of Canada. (PHAC) 2001, and MC Laren, et al, 1983). These symptoms usually appear within four to twenty days of exposure. In men, the infection is more difficult to detect as the majority of infections remain a symptomatic and readily available diagnotic techniques are inadequate this is problematic since long tewrm carriage of I vaginalis in a symptomatic men have been documented up to 4 months (Kreiger, 1993).

Most men seeking treatment do so because of htier infected partners (Hager, 1994). Up to 50% males are usally a symptomatic with the organism persisting in their prostate gland or seminal vesicles (Krieger, 1995). Symptoms in men typically include Urethral discharge, dysuria, mild prurities licting burning after intercourse (Kreiger 1995, and Latif, 1987).

These may casue Urethritis, prostatis, reversible sterility and semen PH is 78.1 – 8.0 (Gopalkrishnan, 1990). This changes have been attributed to the mechanical trauma by the moving protozoa, but toxins or exotoxins have not be ruled out by the organism. The frothy discharge is probably due to gas produced by the organism (Nester, et al, 2001).

The life cycle of I. Vaginalis is still poorly understood. The trophozoite lives in close association with the epithelia of the urogenital tract (Latif et al, 1987) and reproduces by longitudinal binary fission (Nester et al. 2001). I vaginalis is distributed world wide as a human parasite and has no other reserviors (Nester et al, 2001) the mode of transmission is by intimate or direct copntact with vaginal and urethral discharges of infected persons during sexual intercourse rarely occurs by intimate contact with contaminated articles.

The highest rate of infection with multiple sex partners and congenital infection is possible (That is from infected mother to infant at child birth althought infrequent). New born girls can acquire the infection from their infected mothers through birth canal. In such cases, the infection tends to remain a symptomatic unstil puberty (Nester et al, 2001, Bradley, et al, 1993 and public Health Agency Canada (PHAC) 2001).

The organism can survive for hours on moist objects such as damp towels clothes and bathtubs of infected women (Lossick, 1989 and Nester et al, 2001). Nonsexual transmission is extremely rare sine i. Vaginalis infection is generally rstricted to a specific sites namely the urogenital tract Ithomason (1989). The only known nonviral form of transmission is through perinatal acquisition. Approximately 5% of female babies born of infected mothers contract the infection (Bramley, 1976). Nevetheless, I. Vaginalis infection in children should at least raise the question of sexual abuse and p[ossible exposure to other sexually transmitted diseases (Nester et al, 2001).

Evidence for sexual transmission of I. Vainalis is very strong as prevalence is highest among patients with increased sexual acitivity and mul;tiple partners. Approximately 14-65% of male partners of infected females are also infected (Krieger, 1995, and Sena, 2003). The incubation period before symptoms arise is 4-28 days and years for persistat infection (PHAC, 2001). There is high percentage of a sympstomatic carriers especially among men and this fosters

 

 

 

 

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