An Epidemology Survey For Sctristosomiasis Among Pupils In Amagunze Community

In Nkanu Local Government Area In Enugu.

 

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ABSTRACT

The survey of urinary sehistomiass in Ishele in Amagunze, Nkanu East local Government was carried out using two methods of diagnosis i.e combination of questionnaire on clinical signs and symptoms, and laboratory microscopy using primary school children in the area as test samples. A total of fifty samples were randomly collected reveals the prevalence of urinary Sdristomisis is 62 %. The risk factor attributed was found to cotain the sried of the type Bulinus (physopsis) globusus and Bulinus fruncatus that are responsible because children play and swum in Afavu River. The sample were collected from pupils within the age of 6-12 years.

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE: Introduction

CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review

CHAPTER THREE: Materials and methods
3.1 Areas of study
3.2 Collection of Specimen
3.3 Method Involved
3.4 Experiment

CHAPTER FOUR Results
CHAPTER FIVE Discussion
CHAPTER SIX Recommendation and Conclusion
References
Appendixes
LIST OF TABLE

TABLE I : Time scale in the development of schistosome species
Table II Age specific prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis from 50 urine samples analyzed.

LIST OF FIGURES

TRASMISSION LIFE CUCLE 10
DIFFERENT ON A OF SCHISTOSOMES 21

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease of urinary and intestinal tracts by schistosome. A specie which infect the urinary bladder is caused by schnstosome haematobuim widely found in Africa and was first discovered by bilharza in 1851 in Egyptian mummies and He also carried out an urogential tract autopsy. About 20million people are infected with schnstosome parasite, those who get heavy infection are especially or death. Billaries modify dictimery (1998) defined Schistosomiasis as infection disease of man caused by blood flukes of genus schnstosome. It is one of the most serious parasitic infection of man, affecting millions of people in tropical and sub-tropical regions of Africa, Asia and west Indies.

Schistosomiasis presents a constant threat to as many as 600millons people as they perform daily activities related to water, such like swimming, washing and bathing ( Bayers 1984) this Schistosomiasis affect for different prpolation from as a result of human contact with infected water, they includes (a) occupational (b) recreational (c) domestic (d) socio- cultural (Ukoli 1984) The three main species of schnstosome responsible for human infection are schnistasoma japonicum. Four other species occurring much less commonly are interculum, S matter, S bovis and S meking
The blood flukes in schnstosome is a long narrow known as Schistosomiasis or bilharziasis. schnstosome that livers in the urinary bladder of man is known as schisotosoma haematobium while that in the intestine is . schistosoms mansm, and also schistosnma japonicum,

Ramsay (1934) reported that male and female worms are separated individual but the female is smaller and is carried in a groove on the under surface of the male and lives in the vein of the host. The female lays eggsin the walls of the bladder and intestine causing inflammation and bleeding. The eggs are excreted with body wastes and find their way to water contaminated by several different water snail example bulinus which is the intermediate host of schrostome haematobium. Schistosomiasis is very wide spread and associated with poverty, poor housing and inadequate sanitary facilities and unsanitary human behavior.

TABLE 1
TIME SCALE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHISTOSOME SPICES
S. haematobuim S. Mansmi S interculum
Lease of life miraciduim 16- 32 hrs + 5-6 hrs + 16-32 hrs 5-6 hrs + 16 – 32 hrs +
5-6 hrs +
Emergence of cerconnae after miraudial pens tratim of snail 5-6 weeks 4-5 weeks 3 weeks
Lease of life cercansae 1-3 days 1-3 days 1-3 days
Penetratim time of cercanae 3-5 mins 3-5 mins 3-5 mins
Time taken for schstosonulae to reach lungs 4-7 days 4-7 days 4-7 days
First appearance of egg, in urine or stool after infection 54- 84 days 25-28 days 50- 80 days.

As compiled by ukoli (1984)
schistosoma has been found to be a disease rampart and highly prevalent in the revenuer areas, where man contact with infected water while performing their Agricultural activities. Ishiehy Amagunze using annual the river Afavu having an agricultural base with the people contact with the infected water and swampy soil, there is the tendency of the disease which manifest in the people with symptoms as…

 

 

 

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Consumers Acceptability And Physico Chemical Quality Of Breakfast From Malted Sorghum  And Cassava Starch.

 

 

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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SORGHUM GRAIN
TABLE 2
PHYSICO CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE BREAKFAST CEREAL

TABLE 3
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
TABLE 4
COMPOSITION FOR FORMULATION OF BREAKFAST CEREAL.

LIST OF FIGURE
FIGURE 1
FLOW CHART FOR THE PRODUCTION OF CORNFLAKES

FIGURE 2
FLOW CHART FOR MALTING OF SORGHUM/ “ACHA”

FIGURE 3
FLOW CHART FOR PROCESSING CASSAVA TUBER INTO STARCH

FIGURE 4
FLOW CHART FOR INCORPORATION CASSAVA STARCH INTO THE BREAKFAST CEREAL.

 

 

ABSTRACT
Breakfast cereal was formulated using malted sorghum sorghum Vulgare ksvs, “Acha” Digitare exilis flour and cassava, manihot esculenta, T.M.S 4 (2) 1425 strach. The formula was composed of 90g sorghum and “Acha” flour, 10g cassava starch using five different sample ratios; sample A1, (70,20:10), sample B1 (60:30:10), sample C1 (50:40:10), sample D1 (40:50:10) and sample E1 (30:60:10) respectively. The result of the physico- chemical properties and sensory evaluation of the products shoed that sample A had best swelling capacity and gelation temperature of 140% and 730c respectively compared with other sample, including sample E, which exhibited very poor result of 100% swelling capacity and 700c gelation temperature. The ash, crude fibre and moisture contents of sample A were 3:20, 058 and 4.0 respectively in contrast to sample E, which had low result respectively 3.00, 0.54 and 5.0. In terms of flavour, colour, texture and consistency all the sample were generally accepted at 5% and 1% significant difference.

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Breakfast cereals
1.2 Aims and objectives

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Review of literature
2.1 Cereal
2.2 Classes of breakfast cereals
2.2.1 flakes products
.2 puffed products
2.2.3 shredded products
2.2.4 granular products
2.2.5 Importance of breakfast cereals
2.3 Sorghum
2.3.1 Origin of sorghum
2.3.2 Sorghum structure and composition
2.3.3 Uses of sorghum
2.3.4 Motor traditional foods made from sorghum
2.3.5 Malting technology
2.3.6 Sorghum malting
2.4 Origin of “acha”
2.4.1 Anatomical structure of “acha” grain
2.4.2 Chemical composition of “acha”
2.4.3 Recent development of “acha”
2.5 Cassava (manhot esculenta)
2.5.1 Composition of cassava
2.5.2 Uses of cassava

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials and method
3.1 Processing of sorghum into flour
3.1.1 Cleaning
3.1.2 steeping
3.1.3 Germination
3.1.4 Kilning
3.1.5 Milling
3.1.6 Malting of “acha”
3.2 Processing of cassava into cassava starch
3.2.1 Cleaning
3.2.2 Peeling
3.2.3 Washing and grating
3.2.4 Sifing, settling and decanting
3.2.5 Drying, milling and sieving
3.3 Formulation of the breakfast cereals
3.4 Sensory Evaluation Technique
3.5 Determination of the Proximate Composition
3.6 Physico-Chemical Properties
3.6.1 Ash Content Determination
3.6.2 Moisture Content Determination
3.6.3 Crude Fibre Determination
3.6.4 Swelling Capacity
3.6.5 Gelation Temperature

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Result and Discussion
4.1 Physico –Chemical
4.2 Proximate Composition
4.2.1 Ash Content
4.2.2 Crude Fibre
4.2.3 Sensory Evaluation

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Recommendation
References
Appendix 1
Appendix 2

 

 

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BREAKFAST
Breakfast cereal is defined as food obtained by swelling, roasting, grinding, rolling and flaking of any cereal e.g. maize, barley, wheat, sorghum, millet, bender, (1982). Breakfast cereal food can be classified according to the amount of domestic cooking required, the form of the product or dish, the cereal used as raw material.

Kent (1982) reported that all cereal contains a large proportion of search in its natural form the starch is insoluble, tasteless and insulted for human consumption. To make it digestible and acceptable it must be cooked. In see of hot cereal the cooking is carried out domestically, but ready to eat cereals comprises flaked, putted shredded and granular product, generally made from, wheat maize or rice, although oats and barley are also used. The basic cereal may be enriched with sugar, syrup, honey or malt extract. All types are prepared by processes, which tend to cause dextrinization rather them gelatinization of the starch.

The manufacture of “ogi” (maize pap) is the production obtain by fermentation of corn Muller, (1970) when the fermented mass is wrapped in banana leaves and cooked, it is known as “agidi” which has a dry matter content of about 10 per cent. Banigo and Muller, (1972) identified the carboxylic acid of ogi fermentation. They found 11 acids with lactic, acetic and butyric acid being the most important Akinrele (1970) reported that the souring of the maize took lace spontaneously without the addition of inoculates or enzymes. He identified the organism involve in this in aided fermentation and investigated their effect on the nutritive value of the food. He identified the moulds as epholosporium, fusarium, aspergillus and penicillin species and the aerobic bacteria as coryne bacterium and aerobacter species while the main lactic acid bacterium he found was lacto bacillus planetarium. There were also yeast’s: candida mycodermia, saccharomyces cerevisiae and hodotorula sp. although “ogi” is suppose to have an improve B, vitamin content, the result are quite variable, at least for thiamin riboflavin and niacin. The ogi making process is quite complex and the porridge can also be prepared from sorghum, rice, millet and maize.
Malted sorghum flour used in production of breakfast cereal, which can be used as a substituted for other food produced from other cereals.

Aisien, (1982) reported that modification in sorghum grain endosperm during growth and malting was found to be associated mainly with increase activities of amylase Endo B glucose and limit dextrinase and Endo protease. He also reported that the major starch degradanting enzymes was x-amylase the activities of Endo protease were comparably higher in endosperm than in the embryo during seedling growth jayatisa et al (1980) and novella (1978) found that the malting of sorghum is accompanied by large starch loss up to sorghum is accompanied by large starch loss up to 25 % probably due to respiration.

Sorghum as a cereal has some chemical component as barley as well as endogenous hydrolyzing enzymes though not as much as that of barley maltshambe et al (1989). Sorghum has vitamin B such as vitamin B, (thiamin) vitamin B2 (riboflavin) and vitamin B3 (nititrinic acid) among other nutrient essential for yeast metabolism (Aucamp, et al 1961) carganpang (1985) Briggs et al (1981) and shark el al (1980) showed that the gelatrinization temperature of sorghum starch is relatively high compared to that of barley. sorghum gelatrinization temperature ranges from 69.750 while that of barley is between 60.620c we have found that sorghum malted flour can be substituted for rice flour in part or a or a total substitution with noreadily apparent problem chance for grittines and similar quality of finished products with other common flours used in gluten free baking sorghum will also do well for home and commercial use or the gluten free diet. Sorghum can be putted, popped, shredded and flaked to produce ready to eat breakfast cereal. The major categories of traditional food are as fellows fermented and unfermented flat bread, fermented and unfermented thin and thick porridge, steamed and boiled cooked products snacks foods and alcoholic and monalioholic beverage can be achieved from sorghum.

“Acha” Digitaria exilis being relatively unknown annual cereal grain according to Aniche and Anih (1994) the carbohydrate content of “Acha” is 71 %, the calorie value of “Acha” is reported to be 463k cal/100g (white Acha). jideani (1985) which are comparable to sorghum to 394.09k cal/100g. Recent development showed that “Acha” is low but has a high carbohydrate content that was why it was incorporated with sorghum and cassava starch to form breakfast cereal. Cassava is one if the raw material uses in this work which is an indigenous and staple food.

The few misconception related to cassava especially with regard to its low nutritional value. Ohkoye, (1993) reported that lactic acid fermentation is involve in production of garri, lafu and fufu. Cassava starch are mainly products that are little used direct human consumption and the starch could be used as a thickener in such as pit filling, soup sources and gravies, cassava with high quality unfermented flour including fortified cassava flour are now more accessible be cause of the improving processing and technology method for processing many foods.

Breakfast cereal manufactured, shedded wheat made from low protein soft wheat has a protein content considerably lower than that of putted wheat, which is made from a high protein, hard wheat such as durum wheat kent, (1983). all cereal products are difficult in the amino lysine, but the deficiency may be relatively greater in ready to act cereals than in bread because of changes that occur in the protein at high temperat…

 

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Production Of Bread Using Lactic Acid Bacterial (Lab) And Saccharomyces Cerevisiae (Bakers Yeast)

 

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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction 1

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Sour Dough Production 6
2.1 Sourdough production 6
2.2 Nutritional importance base on activities of
lab & saccharomyces cerevisiae 8
2.3 Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) 18
2.4 Sacharomyces Cerevisiae / Bakers yeast 25
2.5 Quality Assurance and Qualify Control in Bread Production 28
2.6 Effects of Sourdough 35

CHAPTER THREE: RE`SEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Sour Starter – Micro-organisms 41
3.2 Assessment for Proteolysis and Starch Hydrolysis 46
3.3 Dough kneading, Fermentation and Baking 47
3.4 Sourdough and Bread Characteristics 47
3.5 Crumb Firmness Measurements 48
3.6 Differential Scanning Calorimerty 49
3.7 Statistical Analysis 50

CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Test for Proteolysis and Starch Hydrolysis 51
4.2 Characteristics of Sourdoughs 51
4.3 Results and Conclusion 52
4.4 Summary / Recommendation 60
4.5 References 63

 

 

 

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In developing countries like Nigeria, bread consumption has increased since 1970 due to appetite to eat and increase in the population.

Nevertheless, people are constantly searching for easy, convenient and rather inexpensive means of taking food in a hygenicaly prepared, ready to eat baked food with high caloric value (Nut, M.J.R 1979) taste panel evaluation of bread culled from proceeding of the launching and first annual conference of Nigeria institute of food science and technology. Modification and improvement in food production including bread making has led to 50% in bread consumption in the entire world population especially in Britain, America and European countries. Murray et al (1970) defined bread as a well known article of food prepared by moistening, kneading and baking meal or flour, generally with the addition of yeast.

Raw materials for production of bread are of two major groups; compulsory and the optimal among the compulsory group are flour, water, yeast and salt while the optimal comprises of milk, sugar, eggs, fats, improvers, preservatives.

Physicochemical change (e.g staling, firming) and microbiological spoilage (e.g ropiness, mold growth) markedly reduce the shelf-life of bread. Attempts have been made to improve the keeping quality of bread either by varying the product formulation (Lude WIG 1989 or Tola et al, 1989) processing (salovaara and valjakka, 1987) or packaging conditions (knorri and tomlins, 1985, ortala et al 1989). The addition to the dough of compounds associated with desired characteristics and good bread keeping quality (Barber et al, 1992, Gobbet, et al, 1995a).

The limited knowledge of the physicochemical changes involved in the mechanisms of bread staling and the economic importance of a longer keeping quality make this subject of great interest. Gluten and its ratio with starch were decisive, factors in bread firmness with great influence on elastic changes during bread storage (Benecki, 1982). Variations of water activity and moisture contents In the near-crust area also influence bread stalling and firmness (Czuchajowska and Pomeranz, 1989) spontaneous sourdough with low pH and a high ratio of lactic and acetic acids produce breads with the highest volumes and lowest rates of staling during storage (Barber et al 1992). The level of native lipids in intact flour was enhanced by shortening and was effective in decreasing firmness. (Rogers et al 1988) changes in the ratio of amylose to amylopectin by adding waxy barley starch to a high-product in wheat flour resulted in softer bread one day after baking or after reheating (Ghiasi et al, 1984) low level treatments with a – amylases from different sources increased the water binding capacity and gelatinization temperature of starch as well as the break baking quality (Kuracina et al, 1987) physical methods like crumb firmness and elasticity evaluation (Berglund and Shelton, 1993) and calorimetry analysis of starch changes during staling (Zeleznak and Heseney 1987) have also classically been to study storage changes.

Use of sourdough produces bread or baked goods indicated to have more flavour, and improve rheology and storage characteristics over products obtained using baker’s yeast (Spicher, 1983, Rocken 1996) sourdough lactic acid bacterial (LAB) and yeast have been shown to compete for carbon sources which influence acid production by bacteria (Gobbette et al, 1994) Homo and hetero fermentative LAB have been extensively evaluated for acidification properties, production of volatile compounds and proteolysis have shown great differences among and within species (Gobbetti et al, 1995b, c, 1996a, Domiani et, al, 1996) mixed freeze dried starter formulations have been prepared to overcome some difficulties of sourdough handling (Martinez- Anya et al; 1993 Cossignani et al 1996). Sourdough lactic acid bacteria (LAB) have been shown to inhibit or delay microbial spoilage thus improving bread shelf-life (Spicher, 1983).

Acidification of the dough, proteolysis of gluten and moderate hydrolysis of starch are LAB activities which vary among sourdough strains and which may affect the physiochemical changes throughout bread shelf-life. No studies have been reported on the effect of different sourdough starters on bread staling, our objectives was to study various association of LAB and yeast starters and their influence on the kinetics of sourdough bread firmness and stalling.

 

AIMS AND OBJECTIVE
The aim of this study was to assess the interactions between saccharomyces cerevisiae and lactic acid bacteria that either form a stable consortium in greek wheat sourdoughs (ie. lactobacillus sanfransiscensis and L. brevis). Lactic acid bacteria increases the nutritional content like the vitamins present and also helps…

 

 

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ADDITIVES AND PRESERVATIVES USED IN FOOD PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION

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ABSTRACT

 

With the increasing use of processed foods since the 19^th century, there has been a great increase in the use of food additives of varying levels of safety. This has led to legislation in many countries regulating their use. On the course of the study, the researcher made some objectives; additive and preservative substances as used in processing and preservation of foods and their health implication of foods in preservation and processing industry. Food preservative like curing involves adding some combination of salt, sugar, spices, vinegar, or sodium nitrate to animal foods. The importance of food additives and preservatives are innumerable hence, the quest for more knowledge and awareness through researches should be promoted by the government. Based on the objectives and recommendation above, the researcher concluded that the nutritional value of modern processed and preserved foods is no probably greater than it has even been before and the major food chemical (carbohydrates, fats and proteins) are kept in a fresh palatable and nutritional satisfactory state.

 

 

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

CHAPTER ONE

• Introduction

 

CHAPTER TWO:          LITERATURE REVIEW

• What are Food Additives and Preservatives

2.1     classifications of food additives and preservatives

• important of food additives and preservatives
• Additives, preservatives and their uses
• Why do we use additives in food and general principles governing their uses
• Role of some common additives in food
• Choice and economic consideration of additives
• Processing and preservation methods
• Nutritive value of processed food and nutritional losses in food processing
• Reason for processing food and effect of processing on the food product

CHAPTER THREE

• Why do we preserve food and factors affecting the choice of a preservation process

3.1     Ways of preserving food

• Purpose of preservation
• Needs and benefits of food additives and preservatives; used in food processing and preservations.

CHAPTER FOUR

Recommendation

Conclusion

References

CHAPTER ONE

 

INTRODUCTION

         Additives is “any substance the intended use of which result or may reasonably be expected to result directly or indirectly in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food” (United States Government 1981).

Additives is any substance not commonly regarded or used as a food, which is added to or used in or on food at any stage to affect its keeping qualities, odaur, alkalinity or acidity or to serve any other technological function in relation to food (food labeling Regulations 1984).

Additives are a substance or mixture of substances, other than a basic foodstuff, which is present in a food as a result of any aspect of production, processing, storage or packaging (nutrition Board 1959).

Additives is non-nutritive substances added intentionally to food, generally in small quantities, to improved it’s appearance, flavour, texture or storage properties (A report of a joint FAO and WHO Expect committee 156).

Additives are any substance used in or around food that may become a component of the food.

Some are introduced specifically for the purpose of improving the nutritive value, taste, texture, or shelf life of the product; these are intentional additives other enters food as residues after some stage of production or manufacture and are known as incidental additives (introductory Nutrition 1989).

Additives are chemicals that are added to food to improve it in some way. Additives are used to modify colour, flavour and texture; to improve the keeping qualities of food and to make processing easier.

It is used to control moisture and acidity. They are used to improve nutritional value. Thousands of different substances are now used as additives, to some people. The increasing number of additives being used is a cause for concern, if not alarm, and if is important to emphasize that the use f additives is most carefully controlled (Allan G. Cameron 1975).

Need for food additives.

Food additives play or important role in today’s complex food supply.

Never before has the range and choice of foods been so wide either in supermarkets, specialist food shops or when eating out. Whilst a shrinking purporting of the population is engaged in primary food production, consumer are demanding more variety choice and convenience alongside higher.

Standards of safety and wholesomeness at affordable prices.

Meeting these consumer expectations can only be achieved using modern food processing technologies which include the use of a variety of food additives proven effective and safe through long use and rigorous testing (Flowerdew, D. 1999).

How is the safety of food additive evaluated in Europe; All food additive must have a demonstration useful purpose and undergo a rigorous scientific safety evaluation before they can be approved for use.

Until the creation of the European food safety Authority mo (EFSA) 177, the safety evaluation of additives in Europe was done by the scientific committee on food (scf).

At present, it is the EFSA panel on food additives, flavouring, processing, Aids and material in contest with food (AFC panel) who is in charge of this task.

Assessments are based in reviews of all available toxicological date in the humans and animals models. From the available date, the maximum level of additive that has no demonstrable toxic effect is determined. This is called “ no-observed-adverse-effect level” (NOAEL) and is used to determined the “Acceptable Daily intake” (ADI) for each food additive. The ADI provides a large safety margin and is the amount of a food additive that can be consumed daily over a life time without any adverse effect on health (European parliament and council Directive 1988).

Groups of additive according to committee on toxicity:

• Group A: Additives that the available evidence suggests are acceptable for use in food.
• Group B: Additives that on the available evidence may be regarded meanwhile as provisionally acceptable for use in food, but about which further information is necessary and which must be reviewed within a specified time.
• Group C: Additives for which the available evidence suggests probable toxicity and which ought not to be allowed in food without evidence establishing their acceptability.
• Group D: additives for which the available evidence suggests possible toxicity and which ought not to be allowed in food.
• Group E: Additives for which the available evidence was inadequate to enable an opinion to be expressed as to their suitability for use in food.
• Group F: additives for which no information toxicity was available.

Substance that is not on permitted lists must not be used for the preparation, manufacture and distribution of foods for sale to the ultimate consumer. In the case of colours, emulsifiers, stabilizers, solvents and most miscellaneous additives, there are no limitations on amounts used in foods although there are prohibitions of their use in certain classes of foods (Furia 1972).

Preservation is “any substance which is a capable of inhibiting, retarding or arresting the growth of micro-organisms or any deterioration of food due to micro-organisms or masking the evidence of such, micro-organisms are yeast, meld, Bacteria.

The use of preservatives to perseverance food has been a common practice for many centuries e.g. salt, sugar, vinegar; spices have been used in homes, for as long as man has been in existence (Britain food Regulations 1989).

Preservatives are centuries old, since ancient times, salt has been used to cure meats and fish, sugar has been added to fruits to conserve them, Herbs, spices and vinegar have also served as preservatives.

Today’, the U.S food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates food preservatives, arrested, mistakes have been made, which has resulted in taking some food preservatives off the market.

That is because at the time of approval, prevailing testing methods proved the substance as safe.

As science continued to evolve and testing methods improved, changes were made. Technology has also assisted in the approval process, as it has become more sophisticated over the years as well.

Preservatives are often present in nature but they are in such small quantities, difficult to obtain. To obtain commercially useful amounts of the preservatives synthetic copies of the natural products. Other preservatives are made in the series of chemical reactions. Typically, preservatives attack the enzymes inside the microbes and some can disrupt the microbe’s cell wall so that substances cannot enter, processes kill or seriously slow the growth of food-spoiling microbes.

Probably, the most important use of preservatives from the food safety point of view is in processed meats such as ham, bacon, salami and sausages. Bacteria like clostridium botulinum can produce deadly poisons and the use of preservatives in such products is absolutely essential. For example, most cured and cooked meats contain the preservative. Potassium nitrate (salt petre).

The ability to preserve food in good condition for long periods is an undoubted bon. The amount of food wasted is reduced and the incidence of food poisoning is minimized. A wider range of foods is available including foods “out of season” and foods from overseas that could not be transported and stocked in former times.

The widespread use of preservatives, refrigerators, ‘deep freezer’ equipment and canned and dehydrated food has made it easy for the…

 

 

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INNATE/NATURAL IMMUNITY TO MALARIA IN SOME INHERITED ABNORMALITIES

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CHAPTER ONE

1.0    INTRODUCTION                                                           1

1.2    WHAT NATURAL IMMUNITY MEANS                           2

1.3    NATURAL IMMUNITY AS IT CONCERNS MALARIA     4

 

CHAPTER TWO

IMPORTANT INFORMATIONS ABOUT MALARIA              5

2.1    MALARIA PARASITES

2.2    MORPHOLOGY AND LIFE CYCLE                                5

2.3    VECTOR AND MODE OF TRANSMISSION

OF MALARIA                                                                 8

2.4    CLINICAL SYMPTOMS OF MALARIA                            8

2.5    LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS OF MALARIA                    11

 

CHAPTER THREE

GENETIC CONDITIONS LEADING TO NATURAL

RESISTANCE TO MALARIA                                                13

3.1    DUFFY ANTIGEN NULL                                                13

3.2    SICKLE-CELL ANEMIA                                                 14

3.3    DIAGNOSIS OF SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA

AND THALASSEMIA                                                     17

3.4    HOW ABNORMAL HEMOGLOBINS (HbS) CAUSE RESISTANCE TO MALARIA IN BOTH AS AND SS

INDIVIDUALS                                                               18

3.5    WHY SS INDIVIDUALS RESIST MALARIA                    20

3.6    THALASSAEMIA                                                            21

3.7    HOW BOTH ALPHA AND BETA-THALASSEMIA

LEAD TO NON SPECIFIC IMMUNITY TO MALARIA     23

3.8    GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATE DEHYDROGENASE

(G6PD) DIFFICIENCY AND MALARIA RESISTANCE    25

 

CHAPTER FOUR

INFIRMITIES ASSOCIATED WITH MALARIA

RESISTANT GENES                                                             28

4.1    SICKLE CELL DISEASE (sickle cell anemia)                28

4.2    THALASSAEMIA INFIRMITIES                                     30

 

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION                                                                        31

 

REFERENCES                                                                       33

 

 

 

ABSTRACT

 

Host resistance or host immunity in malaria is of two types (1) Innate immunity and (2) Acquired immunity. (This seminar presentation teaches that of the innate immunity to malaria). This refers to inherent, non-immune mechanisms of host defence against malaria. This is due to nature of hemoglobin, age of red blood cells, deficiency in certain red cell enzymes and presence or absence of certain factors. Presence of abnormal hemoglobin like thalassemia hemoglobin and foetal hemoglobin confers resistance against all plasmodium spp, while sickle cell anemia trait and hemoglobin E protect against P. falciparium and P. vivax malaria respectively.

The presence of duffy factor increases the susceptibility to malaria while its absence leads to host protection against malaria. A genetic deficiency known as glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) trait confers some protection against P. falciparium infection. This enzymes is essential for respiratory process of the malaria parasite. Considering ages of red blood cells, young red cell resist malaria caused by P. malariae, old erythrocytes resists malaria caused by P. vivax and P. ovale while Plasmodium falciparium infects red blood cell of ages (ie. both young and old erythrocytes).

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

 

INTRODUCTION

Malaria is a life threatening disease mostly in Africa and few other regions where it is endemic like South East Asia, Eastern Mediterranean, India and Middle East.

This seminar write up considers those individuals living in areas where malaria is endemic that do not suffer from malaria or that resist malaria attack, even though they are exposed to infected mosquito bites. They don’t take any special measure or drug to avoid malaria attack. They show positive result to malaria test without any clinical disease or symptoms for a very long period of time. The malaria parasites may be present in red blood cells without any pathogenicity. These individuals are naturally endowed with malaria resistance genes. This type of resistance is genetical and not acquire, hence it is a function of the individuals natural/innate immune system.

In most cases natural immunity to malaria is due to abnormal inherited gene(s) either from the both parents or one parent. In the other hand, these abnormal genes may result to serious genetic diseases that are equally life threatening. Resistance to malaria is achieved through some of the red cell defense against malaria parasite that has arisen by natural selection due to mutation. Innate immunity to malaria is not a function of produced antibodies against the different forms of the developmental stages of the malaria parasite in human host. Rather, the production of antibodies is a function of acquired immunity.

 

1.2   WHAT NATURAL IMMUNITY MEANS

Natural or innate immunity refers to those general mechanisms inherited as part of the innate structure and functions of each animal that offer protection and defence against infectious micro-organisms.

According to American Hentage Medical Dictionary, innate immunity is an immunity that occurs naturally as a result of a person’s genetic constitution or physiology and does not arise from exposure to infection or vaccination. This type of immunity can also be called genetic immunity or non-specific immunity.

This type of immunity are not usually induced by any agent and do not require previous sensitization but are controlled naturally by the genes.

The defence mechanism provided by some physical barriers (eg. skin, mucous membrane) chemical barriers (eg. Interferons, complement, enzymatic action), biological barriers (eg. phagocytosis, inflammation) are all part of innate immunity. It is quite interesting to know that some genetic abnormalities provide natural protection against some diseases and also provide evolutionary advantages.

 

 

1.3   NATURAL IMMUNITY AS IT CONCERNS MALARIA

Malaria parasites lives insides the red blood cells and destroys the red cells during development. Red cell defenses against malaria arises from genetic alteration in the normal red cell components and functions. Such alterations are as follows

1. Sickle cell anemia resulting form abnormal hemoglobin (HbS)
2. Thalassaemia
3. Deficiency in red cell enzymes such as glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency
4. Duffy antigens null etc.

Ochei J. et al (2007) stated that it has been observed that individuals

 

 

Continue reading INNATE/NATURAL IMMUNITY TO MALARIA IN SOME INHERITED ABNORMALITIES →